Battle of the Philippine Essay Example for Free

Battle of the Philippine Essay Thus, Nimitz had anticipated the two critical facets of Yamamoto’s strategic plan of having the battleship supported by aircraft carriers instead of the other way around – and Nimitz knew that the big battleship â€Å"Yamato† was far slower than any other Japanese battleship and Nimitz was also aware that the Japanese the smaller battleships were supposed to lure away the Americans away from the main contingent [7]. Hence, all of the Japanese plans, no matter how ingenious it was – did not work. Skirmishes between smaller contingents started early of June 3rd [7]. But June 4th was D-day time. Japanese planes attacked power plants and installations at Midway, the Battle of Midway has begun. The implications and losses for the Japanese forces were huge – within several minutes, the Japanese Navy had lost half of its carrier force – a force that had been considered to be manned by the Japanese Navy’s elite. Overall, the Japanese lost four vital aircraft carriers vital to their Pacific campaign and the majority of its experienced crew and air fighters. This was why military tacticians on both sides already knew that after the Battle of Midway, the tide of the war has turned in favor of the Allied forces [7]. The next battle fought on sea was the Battle of the Philippine Sea on June 18th to June 20th, 1944 [3]. It was here that Admiral Ozawa’s retirement and abstention from the battle that doomed any Japanese hope of stemming the tide against the American forces. The Japanese lost the Shokaku, Taiho and Hiyo (in each case about two-thirds of the ships’ company) and the oilers destroyed, as well as some 400 planes lost from the carriers [7]. On land, they were defeated in the Battle of Manila Bay and were forced to withdraw from the battle of Guadalcanal when the allies started their island – hopping campaign that had begun in the Solomon Islands. This pushed back the Japanese one island after another. The allies tactically isolated the Japanese major forces in the pacific located at Rabaul. Finally the Japanese were defeated once again as the allied forces pushed them back towards the Philippine islands sea, and the battle of the Leyte Gulf in October 19, 1944. That day, the Americans, headed by General Douglas MacArthur fulfilled his promise of returning to the Philippines [5]. From Leyte Gulf, the Americans coordinated with the existing guerilla forces made up of joint American and Filipino recruits. Finally, on February 4, 1945, the Americans entered Manila and the Yalta Conference was held in USSR [5]. From there the recapture of the Marianas and the Philippine islands were used as a take – off point to advance to Japan’s homeland, and on to the invasion of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. However, in spite of the aggressive military campaign and successive defeats the Japanese suffered from the hands of the allied forces, the emperor refuses to budge and accept defeat to end the war. Instead, the code of BUSHIDO was once again called upon and young Japanese men called to duty went on suicidal missions purposely using their planes as weapons against aircraft carriers and other enemy targets. During that time the US had developed an experimental bomb – the A-bomb and was used as a last recourse to make the Japanese government surrender and stop the continuing carnage. On July 16, the Potsdam conference started. Meanwhile, the first atomic bomb is exploded in a test at Alamogordo, New Mexico. July 26, the Potsdam Declaration is delivered to Japan. On August 2, the Potsdam conference ended [7]. On August 5, 1945 the US dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Still, the Japanese government did not heed the warning. August 8: Russia declares war on Japan. On August 9, another bomb decimated the city of Nagasaki. Finally, Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945 and accepted the Allied terms [7]. VI. Conclusion The passion and ferocity displayed by the Japanese soldiers’ generals and rank and file throughout the entire course of World War 2 proved to the whole world how ready the Japanese were in embracing and enforcing this war. Their cultural mentality and their refusal to budge even at the expense of their young people’s lives showed how tenacious they intended this war would be fought. Their disdain of soldiers who have surrendered during the war – particularly during the â€Å"Bataan Death March† and their treatment of captured American and British officers bolster their â€Å"Bushido† mentality. Japanese soldiers were trained to fight or die. These soldiers, no matter what the cost would offer their lives and commit â€Å"Harakiri† rather than be captured. Hence, they only have the lowest of regard for those who surrender or for those who allowed themselves to be captured. There was no mistaking in assuming that the Japanese prepared and were ready for generations – from the late 1900s into the 20th century that they were trained to go to war and conquer. Bibliography: [1] Bauer, E. Lt-Colonel The History of World War II, Orbis (2000) General Editor: Brigadier Peter Young; Consultants: Brigadier General James L. Collins Jr. , Correli Barnet. (1,024 pages). (Accessed February 01, 2007). [2] Brinkley, Alan. (2005). The Unfinished Nation: A Brief Interactive History of the American People. Chapters 32 to 33. pp. 502-537. New York. (Accessed February 02 to 03, 2007). www.historylearningsite.co.uk

Cyberporn and Pornography - Sex Should Not be a Spectator Sport :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Pornography - Sex Should Not be a Spectator Sport    Some adults recall the days in the early Sixties with a certain nostalgia, as a time when people were still aware of the distinction between pornography and erotic art, and when erotic books and films could pass the censor only if a case could be made for their artistic value. Everything changed very suddenly, according to the poet Philip Larkin:    Sexual intercourse began In nineteen sixty-three. Between the end of the Chatterley ban And the Beatles' first LP.    But still, even though the permissive habits spread rapidly through society, breaking down taboos and breaking up marriages, people remained sensitive to the distinction between art and pornography, and had no objections to a law which forbade explicit sexual imagery. The recent judgment of the High Court, upholding the decision of the Video Appeals Committee (another collection of the Great and the Good) to allow the sale of videos showing explicit scenes of sexual intercourse, suggests that the last vestiges of decency are being finally chased from the law.    Like many distinctions which are intuitively obvious, that between the erotic and the pornographic is not easy to explain. It has been said that pornography is obscene, whereas erotic art is merely suggestive. But what is obscenity? The old test laid down in the Obscene Publications Acts of 1959 and 1964 holds that matter is obscene if it tends to deprave and corrupt those who are likely to come across it. But that test is flawed, since it looks for obscenity only in the effects of a thing, and not in the thing itself. Moreover juries are by no means competent to predict the effects of watching any particular film or reading any particular novel, and are easily swayed by smooth-tongued barristers who represent pornography as a healthy "safety valve" for feelings which could erupt in far more dangerous ways.    The fact is that the desire to watch explicit scenes of carnal lust is in itself depraved. It is not that explicit videos have a tendency to corrupt: they are corrupt. In the sexual sphere this is what corruption consists in - namely the display of sexual appetite divorced from the personal relations that redeem it. To justify pornographic videos on the grounds that they don't make people worse than they are is like justifying gladiatorial combat because it doesn't make people into

Banned Book Project

In the history of literature and arts, there exists some works that were banned for public appreciation. Among the said banned written works is the Bible itself. There are certain reasons of the society why books and other types of written works are banned for the public to see. In this regard, the book entitled â€Å"A Brave New World† by Aldous Hauxley.Why has this book been banned and how does the writer fairly present his idealisms of utopian community? These major questions are to be addressed in the paragraphs that follow. About The Author Aldous Hauxley is a British writer who opted to stay in California during the year 1937.He is a known social satirist writer. He has also been a contributor of the Vanity Fair and Vogue magazines. Aside from this, he has also been known for having a fine collection of poems that has been published as a book of collections during the year 1916. The said book has been entitled The Burning Wheel and had a fair share in the book selling ma rket. Aside from the said creations, he has also been able to come up with four satirical novels, which also became very successful in the book industry. The said novels were entitled Chrome Yellow (1921); Antic hay (1923); Those Barren Leaves (1925) and Point Count Point (1928).After these four successful novels came the creation of the Novel â€Å"Brave New World†. However, unlike the previous creations that were done by Huxley, this Novel received the least appreciation by major socialist groups. How did this Banned Book Project page 2 happen? What is the reason behind the banning of the said novel? These questions shall be entertained by discussing the inner context of the said literature. About The Book It has been noted by Huxley himself that the Novel he wrote has been inspired by the novel written by H. G. Wells entitled â€Å"Men like Gods†.The said novel dealt with a utopian community that is introduced by an optimist view of the future. The title on the othe r hand has been based upon Miranda’s speech in Shakespeare’s written work entitled â€Å"The Tempest†. In act V scene I it could be read: â€Å"O! Wonder! How many goodly creatures are there here! O brave new world That has such people in it! † (41) As it could be obviously observed in the context of the stanza, where the title has been taken from, a utopian society could be depicted from the lines pertaining to the phrase â€Å"brave new world†.From this context, the theme of the novel written by Huxley has been created. Mainly discussing a future situation of the human society basing from the actual contemporary situation of the society. However, when it comes to the novel by Huxley, the future was presented in a horrible situation. This is the reason why many socialists were alarmed and decided to ban the said literature. As it could be seen, the future was presented in a negative utopia. Banned Book Project page 3 A Brief Analysis of the NovelT he time when the novel was written were the years pertaining to the Industrial Revolution. The massive changes that the said era brought to the human society has inspired Huxley to write the novel in a more industrial focused sense of setting. In a futurist fantasy, the idealism of Huxley of a utopian community based upon the development of the present situations in the society towards the future has been clearly stated in the novel. The focus of the theme of the â€Å"Brave New World† is particularly pointed towards the fear of loosing ones identity in a fast-paced system of things.Mainly, this shock of the new society is based upon the personal shock that Huxley experienced the first time he set foot in California. The industrialization of the said community has inspired Huxley to write his novel basing from the said social situation. In an era of people naturally interested in foreseeing the future, Huxley provided the readers with the truth that they did not much like to know. However, it is according to him that if the present situations of those times would continue to progress at a fast pace, the future would much likely turn out to be what his novel suggests.The story started in London. The situation of the world was much likely centralized by a world government that is called â€Å"The World State†. Through the said government, the society is divided into five classes, mainly, the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon. The whole human society is characterized to be continuously happy. However, the said happiness is rigidly ill defined. It is characterized by a trained community in becoming good consumers. Everyone in the society is encouraged to have a social life, being aloof from the society is discouraged, aside form this; sexualBanned Book Project page 4 promiscuity is a social norm. Human production is also encouraged but not in a natural way. On the other hand, the reproduction process happens in a laboratory wherein hybrid childre n are enhanced and reproductions are controlled in a way that the industry could still further support the population. On another part of the story, another society is introduced. It is situated in New Mexico. Most likely, this society depicts the present situation of the human community, whereas there is fashion, arts and science that identifies a person’s happiness.Normal reproduction is also present in the said community. The characters that came from this side of the story considered London’s advancement and happiness to be a soulless situation that is dried up by the progress of industrialization. Why the Novel Was Banned As clearly described on the previous paragraphs, the novel has been highly inclined to picturing a an ideal society when it comes to economic status, however, when it comes to morals and individual being, the said society is indeed a negative community.For this reason, the socialists who were able to know the contents of the said novel feared tha t the society who would be able to read the said literature would be able t have a negative view of the future and would consider sexual promiscuity and other immoral ways of living as a social norm. This may then lead to a social downfall when it comes to morality and individuality. On the contrary, it could be observed that the novel has been a simple exaggeration of the actual situation of the society at present. In a mere measurement of the social situations at present, it could be recognized that there is indeed a possibility byBanned Book Project page 5 which a future society as to that situation which was portrayed in the novel of Huxley. As it could be seen, sexual relations today are even promoted through the media. Pornography and the materials that introduce it to the society are even considered as a norm. All these are manifested by the profit driven world that exists in the society today. In an optimistic way, the publication and the distribution of the book may have wa ken up the society as to how things might turn out to be if they continue to thrive in a profit-focused situation.Personally, the author of this literature analysis sees the banning of the book to be an unnecessary move of the socialists. As the author views the work of Huxley as a wake up call to the human society for them to at least have time to change their ways and be more positively inclined especially when it comes to morals. Conclusion In a positive view, the novel of Huxley may be an exaggeration of the present situation in the society. However, publishing it may have caused many readers to become more aware of the changes that happen in the society and thus shift their profit-driven priorities towards a more morality-focused life.Young children may not understand the context of the novel as a whole; however, making them see the need of social change is a vital part of ensuring a social future inclined to a more morally clean social view. Hence, it could be noted that banni ng the said novel may have been a mistaken move for the socialist groups. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aldous Huxley. (1998). Brave New World. Harper Perennial Modern Classics; Reprint edition BLTC. (2005). BRAVE NEW WORLD ? A Defense Of Paradise-Engineering. http://www. huxley. net/. (December 1, 2006). Shakespeare Homepage. (2005). The Tempest. http://www-tech. mit. edu/Shakespeare/tempest/. (December 1, 2006).

How to Calculate Backgammon Probabilities

Backgammon is a game that employs the use of two standard dice.   The dice used in this game are six-sided cubes, and the faces of a die have one, two, three, four, five or six pips. During a turn in backgammon a player may move his or her checkers or draughts according to the numbers shown on the dice. The numbers rolled can be split between two checkers, or they can be totaled and used for a single checker. For example, when a 4 and a 5 are rolled, a player has two options: he may move one checker four spaces and another one five spaces, or one checker can be moved a total of nine spaces. To formulate strategies in backgammon it is helpful to know some basic probabilities. Since a player can use one or two dice to move a particular checker, any calculation of probabilities will keep this in mind. For our backgammon probabilities, we will answer the question, â€Å"When we roll two dice, what is the probability of rolling the number n as either a sum of two dice, or on at least one of the two dice?† Calculation of the Probabilities For a single die that is not loaded, each side is equally likely to land face up. A single die forms a uniform sample space. There are a total of six outcomes, corresponding to each of the integers from 1 to 6. Thus each number has a probability of 1/6 of occurring. When we roll two dice, each die is independent of the other. If we keep track of the order of what number occurs on each of the dice, then there are a total of 6 x 6 36 equally likely outcomes. Thus 36 is the denominator for all of our probabilities and any particular outcome of two dice has a probability of 1/36. Rolling At Least One of a Number The probability of rolling two dice and getting at least one of a number from 1 to 6 is straightforward to calculate. If we wish to determine the probability of rolling at least one 2 with two dice, we need to know how many of the 36 possible outcomes include at least one 2. The ways of doing this are: (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6) Thus there are 11 ways to roll at least one 2 with two dice, and the probability of rolling at least one 2 with two dice is 11/36. There is nothing special about 2 in the preceding discussion. For any given number n from 1 to 6: There are five ways to roll exactly one of that number on the first die.There are five ways to roll exactly one of that number on the second die.There is one way to roll that number on both dice. Therefore there are 11 ways to roll at least one n from 1 to 6 using two dice. The probability of this occurring is 11/36. Rolling a Particular Sum Any number from two to 12 can be obtained as the sum of two dice. The probabilities for two dice are slightly more difficult to calculate. Since there are different ways to reach these sums, they do not form a uniform sample space. For instance, there are three ways to roll a sum of four: (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), but only two ways to roll a sum of 11: (5, 6), (6, 5). The probability of rolling a sum of a particular number is as follows: The probability of rolling a sum of two is 1/36.The probability of rolling a sum of three is 2/36.The probability of rolling a sum of four is 3/36.The probability of rolling a sum of five is 4/36.The probability of rolling a sum of six is 5/36.The probability of rolling a sum of seven is 6/36.The probability of rolling a sum of eight is 5/36.The probability of rolling a sum of nine is 4/36.The probability of rolling a sum of ten is 3/36.The probability of rolling a sum of eleven is 2/36.The probability of rolling a sum of twelve is 1/36. Backgammon Probabilities At long last we have everything we need to calculate probabilities for backgammon. Rolling at least one of a number is mutually exclusive from rolling this number as a sum of two dice. Thus we can use the addition rule to add the probabilities together for obtaining any number from 2 to 6. For example, the probability of rolling at least one 6 out of two dice is 11/36. Rolling a 6 as a sum of two dice is 5/36. The probability of rolling at least one 6 or rolling a six as a sum of two dice is 11/36 5/36 16/36. Other probabilities can be calculated in a similar manner.

Death of a Salesman Quotes

These quotes, selected from Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman, highlight what pleases Willy as a worker and as a man—tales of wondrous riches, his sense of humor being recognized—and how he is perceived by the characters who feel affection towards him despite his shortcomings. Bens Story WILLY: No! Boys! Boys! [young Biff and Happy appear.] Listen to this. This is your Uncle Ben, a great man! Tell my boys, Ben!BEN: Why boys, when I was seventeen I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty-one I walked out. [He laughs.] And by God I was rich.WILLY [to the boys]: You see what I been talking about? The greatest things can happen! (Act I) The story of how Willy’s brother Ben became rich with his travels to Alaska and the jungle almost became a legend to Willy. Variations of the line â€Å"When I was seventeen, I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty-one† recur throughout the play. The jungle appears as a place that is â€Å"dark but full of diamonds,† which requires a â€Å"great kind of a man to crack [it].† Willy is enamored with the ideal his brother embodies, and tries to instill his interpretation of the â€Å"jungle† parable into his sons, which, together with his obsession with being â€Å"well liked,† places unrealistic expectations in terms of success on Happy and Biff. â€Å"It’s not what you do,† he told Ben once. â€Å"It’s who you know and the smile on your face! It’s contacts.† And while Ben can find diamonds in a dark jungle, Willy claims that â€Å"a man can end with diamonds  here on the basis of being liked.† The character of Ben is interesting also because he sheds light on his and Willy’s father. He made flutes and was a â€Å"great and very wild-hearted man,† who would move his family all over the country, from Boston all the way to the westernmost towns. â€Å"And we’d stop in the towns and sell the flutes that he’d made on the way,† Ben said. â€Å"Great inventor, Father. With one gadget he made more in a week than a man like you could make in a lifetime.†Ã‚   As we see in the events that unfold, the two brothers developed differently. Ben inherited the adventurous and entrepreneurial spirit of his father, while Willy is a failed salesman. Willys Affair With The Woman THE WOMAN: Me? You didn’t make me, Willy. I picked you.WILLY [pleased]: You picked me?THE WOMAN [who is quite proper-looking, Willy’s age]: I did. I’ve been sitting at that desk watching all the salesmen go by, day in, day out. But you’ve got such a sense of humor, and we do have such a good time together, don’t we?  (Act I) Here, we learn what about Willy’s affair with The Woman stokes his ego. She and Willy share a lewd sense of humor, and she clearly states that she â€Å"picked† him because of it. To William, sense of humor is one of his core values as a salesman and part of a trait—likability—that he tries to teach his sons as being more important than sheer hard work when it comes to success. Yet, in their affair, she is able to tease William with unpleasant truths about himself. Gee, you are self-centred! Why so sad? You are the saddest, self-centredest soul I ever did see-saw. Miller does not make any effort to flesh out any depth about her character—he doesn’t even give her a name—because that’s not necessary for the sake of the play’s dynamics. While her presence precipitated the rift in Willy’s and Biff’s relationship, as it exposed him as a phony, she is no rival to Linda. The Woman is closely associated with her laughter, which can be interpreted as the laughter of the Fates in a tragedy.   Lindas Devotion to Willy BIFF: Those ungrateful bastards!LINDA: Are they any worse than his sons? When he brought them business, when he was young, they were glad to see him. But now his old friends, the old buyers that loved him so and always found some order to hand him in a pinch—they’re all dead, retired. He used to be able to make six, seven calls a day in Boston. Now he takes his valises out of the car and puts them back and takes them out again and he’s exhausted. Instead of walking he talks now. He drives seven hundred miles, and when he gets there no one knows him any more, no one welcomes him. And what goes through a man’s mind, driving seven hundred miles home without having earned a cent? Why shouldn’t he talk to himself? Why? When he has to go to Charley and borrow fifty dollars a week and pretend to me that it’s his pay? How long can that go on? How long? You see what I’m sitting here and waiting for? And you tell me he has no character? The man who never worked a day but for your benefit? When does he get the medal for that? (Act I) This monologue showcases Linda’s strength and devotion to Willy and her family, while summarizing the downward trajectory in his career. Linda might appear as a meek character at first. She doesnt nag her husband for not being a better provider and, at first glance, she lacks assertiveness. Yet, throughout the play, she delivers speeches that define Willy beyond his shortcomings as a salesman and give him stature. She defends him as a worker, as a father, and, during Willy’s funeral service, she expresses disbelief at her husband’s suicide.   Even though she acknowledges that Willy makes â€Å"mountains out of molehills,† she is always prone to lifting him up, saying things like â€Å"you don’t talk too much, you’re just lively.† â€Å"You’re the handsomest man in the world [†¦] few men are idolized by their children the way you are.† To the children, she says â€Å"He’s the dearest man in the world to me, and I won’t have anyone making him feel unwanted and low and blue.† Despite the bleakness of his life, Willy Loman himself recognizes the devotion of Linda. â€Å"You’re my foundation and my support, Linda,† he tells her in the play. Ben vs. Linda WILLY: No, wait! Linda, he’s got a proposition for me in  Alaska.LINDA: But you’ve got—[To Ben] He’s got a beautiful  job here.WILLY: But in Alaska, kid, I could—LINDA: You’re doing well enough, Willy!BEN [to linda]: Enough for what, my dear?LINDA [ frightened of Ben and angry at him]: Don’t say those things to him! Enough to be happy right here, right now. [To Willy, while Ben laughs] Why must everybody conquer the world?  (Act II) A conflict between Linda and Ben is apparent in these lines, as he is trying to convince Willy to go into business with him (he bought timberland in Alaska and he needs someone to look after things for him). Linda emphasizes that what Willy has—he is still doing relatively fine at his job—is just enough for him. The conflict between the city and the wilderness is also latent in this exchange. The former is full of â€Å"talk and time payments and courts of law,† while the latter just requires you to â€Å"screw on your fists and you can fight for a fortune.† Ben looks down on his brother, whose career as a salesman resulted in him building nothing tangible. â€Å"What are you building? Lay your hand on it. Where is it?,† he says. In general, Linda disapproves of Ben and his ways. In another timeswitch, he challenges Biff to a fight and uses unfair methods to defeat him—he laughs it off, claiming to be teaching Biff never to fight fair with a stranger. The reasoning behind his lesson? â€Å"You’ll never get out of the jungle that way.† Charleys Appreciation of Willy Lindas and Charley’s monologues on Willy fully and sympathetically show how tragic the character is:   CHARLEY: Nobody dast blame this man. You don’t understand: Willy was a salesman. And for a salesman, there is no rock bottom to the life. He don’t put a bolt to a nut, he don’t tell you the law or give you medicine. He’s a man way out there in the blue, riding on a smile and a shoeshine. And when they start not smiling back—that’s an earthquake. And then you get yourself a couple of spots on your hat, and you’re finished. Nobody dast blame this man. A salesman is got to dream, boy. It comes with the territory.  (Requiem) Charley utters this monologue during Willy’s funeral, where nobody but Willy’s family, himself, and his son Bernard show up. Charley had been lending Willy money for some time before the events of the play, and even though Willy always had quite a disparaging attitude towards him and his son (who was considered a nerd compared to Biff, the football star), Charley maintained an attitude of kindness. In particular, he defends Willy from Biff’s remarks, namely that he â€Å"had the wrong dreams† and â€Å"never knew who he was.† He goes on to define the attitude of salesmen, category of people whose livelihoods depend on successful interactions with customers. When their success rate wanes, so does their career and, according to the American values of the time, their life’s worth.

Test Anxiety Is A Fear Of Failing An Exam - 1203 Words

Test anxiety is a fear of failing an exam. This fear can typically occur either before or during an exam, which can result from the student unable to do their best. Though it is normal for everyone to feel nervous for an exam. However, when the fear for the exam starts to become excessive, it can then be difficult to concentrate and to recall the information. The severity of test anxiety varies from person to person. One may experience butterflies in their stomach while someone else may experience their heartbeat starting to race. Test anxiety is caused by two main factors, such as a biological and mental status. The biological cause is based on the hormone known as adrenaline. Adrenaline is a hormone that helps prepare the body for what is about to happen. However, the mental aspect to test anxiety is based on the students thought process. The symptoms for people that have test anxiety can vary from mild to severe. There are three main symptoms of test anxiety such as physical, cognitive and behavioral, and emotional. However, there are several ways that one can mange their test anxiety whether it’s by studying for only two hours a day, or if its by seeking medical help. So whatever the way the person decides to mange their anxiety, they should know that there anxiety does not have to be a worry anymore. When someone is experiencing test anxiety, it is when there is so much pressure that is put on them that they start to become anxious about doing well on the exam. InShow MoreRelatedThe Types Of Anxieties, Learners May Face During Examinations1183 Words   |  5 PagesThe Types of Anxieties, Learners May Face During Examinations. Anxiety can be of many types. Be it language anxiety, test anxiety or even speech anxiety and social anxiety. 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Second Language Aquisition free essay sample

Language Acquisition What is Second Language Acquisition? In second language learning, language plays an institutional and social role in the community. It functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their native tongue. In foreign language learning, language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom. The distinction between second and foreign language learning is what is learned and how it is learned. Slide 2: Learning a second language requires: 1. formal language instruction in an academic setting; 2. nteractions with the second language outside of the classroom; 3. pedagogical practices, strategies and methodologies which facilitate second language learning (how); and 4. teaching the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing along with comprehension and thinking (what). Slide 3: The study of second language acquisition involves: 1. how second languages are learned ( the proc ess); 2. how learners create a new language system with limited exposure (interactions); 3. language proficiency levels (competence and performance of the language); and 4. hy some learners achieve native-like proficiency. How Do Learners Acquire a Second Language? Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge). Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties. Slide 4: Learners acquire a second language by drawing on their background experiences and prior knowledge in their first language. They experiment with the second language by using features found in their first language which are similar to those in the second language. This dependence on the first language serves to help the learner construct an interlanguage, a transitional system consisting of the learner’s current second language knowledge. Communication strategies help the learners use what they already know to overcome breakdowns in communication. Slide 5: Individual differences affect second language acquisition. These differences may be developmental, cognitive, affective or social. There are factors that are fixed which we cannot control such as age and language learning aptitude. There are some variable factors such as motivation which are controlled by social setting and the course taken for developing the second language. Teachers need to know that variable factors are controlled through the learning environment, by knowing their students’ cognitive styles, their learning preferences, how they teach, and what they teach. Slide 6: There are many different types of learner strategies which teachers need to be aware of in order to understand the strategies children bring with them and how they learn best. Language learners may need to be taught strategies for relating new knowledge to prior knowledge, for organizing information more effectively and for seeking opportunities for communicating with target language speakers. Slide 7: Researchers identified a natural order of strategies for developing a second language. The order of development starts with the very simple imitation of a word or language structure, to self-talk, to self-correcting, and to role-playing. An awareness of this natural order can help teachers of second language learners plan lessons to facilitate language learning and increase the learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence. Slide 8: There are several theories of second language acquisition which have provided information on how second languages are learned. The Universalists studied a wide-range of languages to find out how languages vary and what makes them vary. They looked at language patterns, language universals (features of language which are common across many languages) as well as other properties of language. Slide 9: Universalists also claimed that language is acquired through innateness (nature) and that certain conditions trigger the development of language (nurture). The search for meaning is innate. Activities and instructional materials need to be presented in a meaningful, relevant and interesting manner in order to allow students to make language learning connections. Slide 10: Behaviorists claimed that learners learn by undergoing training and practice through a series of stimulus and response chains and operant conditioning. The environment provides the stimulus and the learner provides the response. According to the Behaviorist theory, reinforcement motivates the formation of a language habit. Behaviorist Theory (Continued) Theory When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains. Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive responses provided by the environment. The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to: 1. 2. 3. 4. respond to stimuli in a certain way; intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses; extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response (positive reward chains); and generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of S-R-R chains. Slide 11: Language learning requires effort and practice. Behaviorists further claimed that learners imitate or approximate productive responses. For instance, learning how to write is not universal across cultures because some cultures do not have a history of written language, therefore learning how to write involves a conscious effort and specific training, as well as a willingness to learn by trial and error. Responding to stimuli in this instance is critical in order for writing to take place. Slide 12: Nativists claimed that language learning is biologically determined. Each person is born with an innate ability to learn language. The basic innate language learning capacities are referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This view asserts that the environment only serves to trigger the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) which determines what children acquire. Children acquire much of their language ability before coming to school, thus supporting the innate structures argument. Nativist Theory (Continued) 1. 2. 3. the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment; Theory McNeill (1966) described the LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties: the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes that can be refined later; knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not; and the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system in order to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered. 4. Nativists have contributed to the discoveries of how the system of child language works. Theorists such as Chomsky, McNeill, and others helped us understand that a child’s language, at any given point, is a legitimate system in its own right. Slide 13: The Nativists also contend that learners actively construct grammar for themselves by actively listening to the language around them and trying to determine the patterns in the utterances. Learners progress through language in predictable stages. The learner will not respond to error correction if he/she is not developmentally ready. Slide 14: Cognitivists claimed that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of learning. They believed that human beings have the capacity for developing logical thinking. Acquiring knowledge is a cognitive process which involves automatic processing (rountinzed) and controlled (temporary) learning. Cognitivist Theory (Continued) Language Learning as a Cognitive Process 1. 2. Theory Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance. Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present. Activation is a learned response. Memory is a large collection of nodes. Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a sequence. Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have been used. Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i. e. knowing the ‘what’ of the language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge i. e. know the ‘how’ of the language system to employ strategies. 3. 4. 5. 6. Slide 15: The Cognitive theory underscores the fact that the learner brings an innate mental capacity to the learning task. He/she also brings perceptions of relationships between what he knows and what he/she needs to know. Learner strategies are used for learning the rules of a language and how to use the language for different audiences and purposes. Theories of Second Language Acquisition (Continued Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the development of language comes from the early interactions between infants and caregivers. Social interactionists stress: Theory the importance of a child’s interactions with parents and other caregivers; the importance of â€Å"motherese†; contributions of context and world knowledge; and the importance of goals Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in their negotiation of meaning to produce comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to provide adequate opportunities for target language use to allow learners to develop competence in the target language. Slide 16: Social interactionists believe that human language emerged from the social role that language plays in human interactions. They further believed that the environment plays a key role and that adults in the child’s linguistic environment are instrumental in language acquisition. Language learners need many opportunities for using the target language in order to develop competence. Slide 17: Social interaction is the key to language processing. Input from the social interactions provides a model for negotiation opportunities. Vygotsky (1978) believed that learners bring two levels of development to the learning: an actual developmental level and a potential developmental level. These two levels are referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development. Learners can move from actual development to proximal development through social interactions with others. Slide 18: Krashen proposed five hypotheses for second language acquisition. He explored the notion that acquisition is different from learning because one takes place in a natural environment while the other takes place in an academic setting. He further claimed that we learn language in a predictable order. Some language structures are learned earlier than others. The monitor is the self-correcting mechanism that learners use to edit what they say before they speak or write. The learner can overuse the monitor and stifle communication. Slide 19: Krashen proposed that when learners are provided with comprehensible input they acquire more. When the learner’s affective filter is up, this means that information is not reaching the learner. This may be because of fear, anxiety or low selfconfidence in language learning. The ideal situation is for the filter to be down so that the language acquisition device can receive the input necessary for language acquisition. Cummin’s Second Language Framework Cummins makes a distinction between social language and academic language. 1. Social language refers to the everyday conversational language which is supported by the use of illustrations, realia, demonstrations, etc. Context Embedded). Studies show that language learners acquire social language in approximately two years. Social language deals with the here-and-now language, therefore second language learners tend to acquire it faster. 2. Academic language is the language of school tasks which is more abstract and decontextualized (Context Reduced). Some second language learners who develop fluent spoken English have difficulties in reading and writing because they may be at different levels of proficiency while they are moving from social language (BICS) to academic language (CALP). It takes between five to seven years for second language learners to acquire academic language. Slide 20: James Cummins developed a framework for second language acquisition that involves the identification of both social and academic languages. The basic interpersonal communication skills are acquired from everyday use of the language and are supported by cues in the environment (context-embedded). The cognitive academic language proficiency is more abstract language which is not supported by environmental cues (context-reduced). Slides 21-22: Context-embedded tasks are for the most part cognitively undemanding because learners are able to depend on cues for assistance. There are some tasks that are context-embedded, more complex and impose cognitive demands. The learners in these situations can still rely on environmental cues for help. Slides 23-24: Context-reduced tasks can be both cognitively undemanding and cognitively demanding as well. Cognitively undemanding tasks are simple to carry out but do not contain environmental cues i. e. reading for personal purposes. Cognitively demanding, context-reduced tasks are more abstract and decontextualized. Slides 25-26: The components of communicative competence include: 1) grammatical competence which is knowing the structure of the language; 2) sociolinguistic competence which involves the use of the language for different audiences, purposes and norms of communication; 3) discourse competence which includes combing and connecting utterances both spoken and written; and 4) strategic competence which involves using language to meet communication goals. Slide 27: Competence is the underlying knowledge which is the mental representation of linguistic rules. This knowledge is nonobservable because it is internal. Performance is the overtly observable production of competence (comprehension and production of language). Slide 28: The three general principles of language learning include: 1) the law of exercise-active and repeated responses to stimuli (practice); 2) the law of effect-reinforcing learner responses (providing immediate corrective feedback); and 3) the principle of shaping-learning language through learning chunks (bit-bybit). Slide 29: These principles operate under the assumption that language learning is the formation of habit. The learner’s automatic responses were prompted by stimuli. Interesting and motivating stimuli turns responses into automatic, routinized learning. The level of difficulty required to learn a second language depends on the amount of time it takes to learn a second language pattern. The time from which controlled responses (short-term) turn into automatic responses (long-term) is dependent on learner differences, learning conditions, and teaching pedagogy. Input and Interaction L2 acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the second language. This input may come in written or spoken form. Spoken input occurs in face-to-face interactions. Non-reciprocal discourse includes listening to the radio or watching a film. Behaviorists claim that presenting learners with input in the right doses and then reinforcing their attempts to practice them can control the process of acquisition. Chomsky pointed out that in many cases there was a very poor match between the kind of language found in the input that learners received and the kind of language they themselves produced. Comprehensible input (Krashen’s, 1985 Input Hypothesis) proposed that learners acquire morphological features in a natural order as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Long (1981a) argued that input which is made comprehensible by means of the conversational adjustments that occur when there is a comprehension problem is especially important for acquisition. Swain (1985) proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis which states that learners need opportunities for â€Å"pushed output† in speech or writing that makes demands on them for correct and appropriate use of the L2. Slide 30: Input and interaction are very important factors in second language acquisition. Second language acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the target language. Teachers can provide comprehensible input in their instructional delivery coupled with opportunities for interactions. Adjustments are made in order to facilitate the comprehension of messages. Just as important is comprehensible output. Learners need to be given opportunities to produce spoken or written discourse which forces them to use correct and appropriate use of the second language. The Role of the Native Language in Second Language Acquisition Language Trans fer The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as â€Å"language transfer. † It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively on their native language. According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the distribution of the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture. This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language. This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by native speakers. Lado’s work and much of the work of that time (1950’s) was based on the need to produce pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language and the target language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages. Slide 31: The first language has a distinct role in second language acquisition. When language learners have a strong linguistic and communicative foundation in their native language, then the process of second language acquisition involves language transfer. Learners transfer forms and meanings as they attempt to speak or write the second language. Transfer takes on a receptive role when the learners listen to native speakers of the language and try to understand what is being said. Similarities in the two languages are transferred positively (language facilitation), while differences cause a nonproductive transfer (language interference). Framework for Explaining L1 Transfer Language Trans fer The L1 system is used for both comprehension and production. The interlanguage system is also used in comprehending and receiving messages. The L1 system is used in hypothesis construction responsible for interlanguage development. Comprehensible input serves as a major source of information for hypothesis construction. L2 output may be used for hypothesis construction. Slide 32: Language learners rely on their first language to produce language and to comprehend it. Hypotheses construction of language comes when learners manipulate and test language forms to further their interlanguage, the stages of development between L1 and L2. The second language output helps the learner test hypotheses of how language works and helps them construct new ones. Teachers provide comprehensible input in order to help learners acquire information for hypotheses construction. Slide 33: Language transfer is a cognitive process which involves the strategic use of the first language in learning the second language. The flexible thinking that occurs in the learner’s mind is representative of the interconnectedness between the two languages. Bi-cognitive thinking occurs spontaneously and with great ease. Learners think in their first language, transfer that thinking into the second language and then produce the utterances that meet the communication situation. There is a distinction between transfer experienced for communication purposes and transfer experienced for second language learning. First language transfer helps the learner receive and produce messages for communication purposes. Transfer in learning situations happens when the learner uses the first language to formulate hypotheses about second language rules. Language Language Transfer Trans fer Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through positive transfer to the native-language pattern. Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors occurred resulting from negative transfer. Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists claims. This re-evaluation included area such as: the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior to the language behavior of humans were pointed out; 2. the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where language behavior was concerned; 3. nalogy could not account for the language user’s ability to generate totally novel utterances; and 4. studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely corrected their children’s linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the importance of reinforcement in language learning. All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L1 in L2 learning. 1. Slide 34: When language feat ures in the two languages are similar, positive transfer from the first language to the second language occurs. When language features in the two languages are different, learning difficulties and errors happen. This transfer process made it evident to researchers that the native language definitely plays a major role in second language acquisition. The Nature of the Interlanguage Continuum Cognitive theories of interlanguage claim that with the assistance of learning strategies, learners build mental grammars of the second language. Learners draw on the rules they have constructed to interpret and produce utterances. Learner’s utterances are only erroneous with reference to the target language norms, not to the norms of their own grammars. The interlanguage continuum consists of a series of overlapping grammars. Each share some rules with the previously constructed grammar, but also contains some new or revised rules. A rule has the status of a hypothesis. Slide 35: The implication of the interlanguage continuum for teachers is that with assistance from learning strategies, learners are able to build mental grammars (rules) of the second language. The continuum represents different interlanguage stages (overlapping grammars) that the learners go through to use the rules they have learned to interpret and produce speech. Rules are classified hypotheses because the learner tests certain language rules in his/her development. Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learner’s system and gives the system a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language or target language system, rather it falls between the two. Stages of Interlanguage Development include: 1) random errors (presystematic); 2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing; 3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production; 4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors; 5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency; 6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and 7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i. . spelling). Interlanguage Continuum Interlanguage Stages L1 L2 ______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______ Basilang Mesolang Acrolang Slide 36: Each of the stages of the interlanguage continuum represents each grammar that the learner builds which represents more complexity as he/she moves on the continuum. Second language learners begin in t heir first language and as teachers provide the formal and informal second language instruction, learners move forward in their development. When learners encounter difficulties in any of their interlanguage stages, they can fossilize (learning stops at some given point) or they may experience backsliding (regression). The continuum can be related to language learner categories used for identifying bilingual/ESL students. Basilang is equivalent to the beginner; mesolang is the category of an intermediate learner; and acrolang is the category for the advanced learner. Slide 37: The identification of errors that language learners make is important in order to understand the source of errors and the corrective measures teachers can offer. Errors happen when learners lack knowledge of second language rules, while mistakes occur when learners are unable to perform their competence (underlying knowledge that is non-observable). Overt errors are deviations in form and covert errors are those that are well-formed but do not communicate what the learner intended. Learner Errors Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning processes. Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L2 acquisition was the result of L1 transfer or creative construction (construction of unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of acquiring the native language). The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer (interlingual), while those errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were indicative of creative construction (intralingual). The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by transferring L1 habits, many more were not. It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors varied according to their level of development. Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what learners could do correctly. Slide 38: For teachers of English language learners, it is important to understand the role of errors in second language learning. Error analysis is important because it gives us the opportunity to examine learner errors and determine if errors are a consequence of first language interference or not. Implications for teachers come in planning instruction that addresses patterns in errors made by students experiencing language interference, grouping practices to target the identified errors, and instructional methodologies and strategies for helping learners overcome some of their errors. Slide 39: Errors made by a language learner can give teachers insight as to how much knowledge the learner has in the second language. They are a means of diagnosing progress or lack of progress in second language development. Errors are to be seen as part of a process of second language acquisition not just as the result of imperfect learning. Slide 40: Errors are systematic and will occur until the language learner recognizes them and corrects them. If communication is clear, even when learners produce errors such as â€Å"no want† then the error is in the language structure and not in the learner’s system (interlanguage). Slide 41: Contrastive analysis helps teachers understand potential errors language learners make. This understanding will allow teachers to identify what needs to be learned and what is already in the learner’s system. What needs to be learned will be the focus of instruction and what is already learned will be the knowledge the learner brings to the learning situations. The pedagogical materials that resulted from contrastive analysis were based on the claim that language is a habit; language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits; the native language interferes with the reception and production of a second language; and accounting for errors involves considering differences between the first and the second languages. The greater the differences the more errors will occur; and difficulty and ease in learning a second language are determined by differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast. Slide 42: Thomas and Collier (1997), proposed the Prism Model of Language Acquisition for School. This model includes first and second language cognitive development, academic development, language development as well as social and cultural processes. Slide 43: The cognitive development component is a subconscious process that is developmental. Thought processes are built through interactions. It is critical that cognitive development take place in the first language so that the foundation is strong and positive transfer of skills and concepts occurs. Slide 44: Academic knowledge, concepts and skills transfer from the first to the second language. In order to make the necessary instructional adjustments, teachers need to provide instruction in the learners’ first language and a strong English as a Second Language component during the instructional day in order to make academic content meaningful. The interruption of academic development in the first language will likely promote academic failure. A good balance of academic instruction (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) in the first language and vocabulary and oral language development (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) through ESL will facilitate language transfer and transition when the learner is ready. According to research, it takes a language learner from 5-7 years to reach academic proficiency in the second language. It takes from 2-3 years to acquire BICS. Therefore, teaching BICS in the two languages and having a strong ESL program are essential if language learners are to be ready for transitioning from the first to the second language. Slide 45: Language development includes Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) which are acquired subconsciously as well as the innate ability learners bring with them to the academic setting (CALP). In order to assure both cognitive and academic success in learning a second language, the learner must be taught in his/her first language to a high cognitive level so that the learner can develop the necessary competence and performance in the second language. Slide 46: Second language learners go through everyday experiences which impact the acquisition of the second language. The home-school connection is very important in order to help language learners respond to second language learning more effectively. The sociocultural support that language learners need must be evident at home, at school, in the community and in society at large. The instructional environment can either create social unity, linguistic and ethnic respect, and value for bilingualism or it may promote a psychological distance between two groups, cultures and languages. Slide 47: In conclusion, teachers working with second language learners must consider the learners’ linguistic, cultural, and academic needs, as well as the levels of language proficiency. Teachers should encourage their students to experiment with language and not be afraid of making errors. Errors are part of the learning process just as error correction is part of the teaching process. Teachers should not ignore errors, but focusing too much on them can cause anxiety, fear and hamper learning.