Death of a Salesman Quotes

These quotes, selected from Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman, highlight what pleases Willy as a worker and as a man—tales of wondrous riches, his sense of humor being recognized—and how he is perceived by the characters who feel affection towards him despite his shortcomings. Bens Story WILLY: No! Boys! Boys! [young Biff and Happy appear.] Listen to this. This is your Uncle Ben, a great man! Tell my boys, Ben!BEN: Why boys, when I was seventeen I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty-one I walked out. [He laughs.] And by God I was rich.WILLY [to the boys]: You see what I been talking about? The greatest things can happen! (Act I) The story of how Willy’s brother Ben became rich with his travels to Alaska and the jungle almost became a legend to Willy. Variations of the line â€Å"When I was seventeen, I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty-one† recur throughout the play. The jungle appears as a place that is â€Å"dark but full of diamonds,† which requires a â€Å"great kind of a man to crack [it].† Willy is enamored with the ideal his brother embodies, and tries to instill his interpretation of the â€Å"jungle† parable into his sons, which, together with his obsession with being â€Å"well liked,† places unrealistic expectations in terms of success on Happy and Biff. â€Å"It’s not what you do,† he told Ben once. â€Å"It’s who you know and the smile on your face! It’s contacts.† And while Ben can find diamonds in a dark jungle, Willy claims that â€Å"a man can end with diamonds  here on the basis of being liked.† The character of Ben is interesting also because he sheds light on his and Willy’s father. He made flutes and was a â€Å"great and very wild-hearted man,† who would move his family all over the country, from Boston all the way to the westernmost towns. â€Å"And we’d stop in the towns and sell the flutes that he’d made on the way,† Ben said. â€Å"Great inventor, Father. With one gadget he made more in a week than a man like you could make in a lifetime.†Ã‚   As we see in the events that unfold, the two brothers developed differently. Ben inherited the adventurous and entrepreneurial spirit of his father, while Willy is a failed salesman. Willys Affair With The Woman THE WOMAN: Me? You didn’t make me, Willy. I picked you.WILLY [pleased]: You picked me?THE WOMAN [who is quite proper-looking, Willy’s age]: I did. I’ve been sitting at that desk watching all the salesmen go by, day in, day out. But you’ve got such a sense of humor, and we do have such a good time together, don’t we?  (Act I) Here, we learn what about Willy’s affair with The Woman stokes his ego. She and Willy share a lewd sense of humor, and she clearly states that she â€Å"picked† him because of it. To William, sense of humor is one of his core values as a salesman and part of a trait—likability—that he tries to teach his sons as being more important than sheer hard work when it comes to success. Yet, in their affair, she is able to tease William with unpleasant truths about himself. Gee, you are self-centred! Why so sad? You are the saddest, self-centredest soul I ever did see-saw. Miller does not make any effort to flesh out any depth about her character—he doesn’t even give her a name—because that’s not necessary for the sake of the play’s dynamics. While her presence precipitated the rift in Willy’s and Biff’s relationship, as it exposed him as a phony, she is no rival to Linda. The Woman is closely associated with her laughter, which can be interpreted as the laughter of the Fates in a tragedy.   Lindas Devotion to Willy BIFF: Those ungrateful bastards!LINDA: Are they any worse than his sons? When he brought them business, when he was young, they were glad to see him. But now his old friends, the old buyers that loved him so and always found some order to hand him in a pinch—they’re all dead, retired. He used to be able to make six, seven calls a day in Boston. Now he takes his valises out of the car and puts them back and takes them out again and he’s exhausted. Instead of walking he talks now. He drives seven hundred miles, and when he gets there no one knows him any more, no one welcomes him. And what goes through a man’s mind, driving seven hundred miles home without having earned a cent? Why shouldn’t he talk to himself? Why? When he has to go to Charley and borrow fifty dollars a week and pretend to me that it’s his pay? How long can that go on? How long? You see what I’m sitting here and waiting for? And you tell me he has no character? The man who never worked a day but for your benefit? When does he get the medal for that? (Act I) This monologue showcases Linda’s strength and devotion to Willy and her family, while summarizing the downward trajectory in his career. Linda might appear as a meek character at first. She doesnt nag her husband for not being a better provider and, at first glance, she lacks assertiveness. Yet, throughout the play, she delivers speeches that define Willy beyond his shortcomings as a salesman and give him stature. She defends him as a worker, as a father, and, during Willy’s funeral service, she expresses disbelief at her husband’s suicide.   Even though she acknowledges that Willy makes â€Å"mountains out of molehills,† she is always prone to lifting him up, saying things like â€Å"you don’t talk too much, you’re just lively.† â€Å"You’re the handsomest man in the world [†¦] few men are idolized by their children the way you are.† To the children, she says â€Å"He’s the dearest man in the world to me, and I won’t have anyone making him feel unwanted and low and blue.† Despite the bleakness of his life, Willy Loman himself recognizes the devotion of Linda. â€Å"You’re my foundation and my support, Linda,† he tells her in the play. Ben vs. Linda WILLY: No, wait! Linda, he’s got a proposition for me in  Alaska.LINDA: But you’ve got—[To Ben] He’s got a beautiful  job here.WILLY: But in Alaska, kid, I could—LINDA: You’re doing well enough, Willy!BEN [to linda]: Enough for what, my dear?LINDA [ frightened of Ben and angry at him]: Don’t say those things to him! Enough to be happy right here, right now. [To Willy, while Ben laughs] Why must everybody conquer the world?  (Act II) A conflict between Linda and Ben is apparent in these lines, as he is trying to convince Willy to go into business with him (he bought timberland in Alaska and he needs someone to look after things for him). Linda emphasizes that what Willy has—he is still doing relatively fine at his job—is just enough for him. The conflict between the city and the wilderness is also latent in this exchange. The former is full of â€Å"talk and time payments and courts of law,† while the latter just requires you to â€Å"screw on your fists and you can fight for a fortune.† Ben looks down on his brother, whose career as a salesman resulted in him building nothing tangible. â€Å"What are you building? Lay your hand on it. Where is it?,† he says. In general, Linda disapproves of Ben and his ways. In another timeswitch, he challenges Biff to a fight and uses unfair methods to defeat him—he laughs it off, claiming to be teaching Biff never to fight fair with a stranger. The reasoning behind his lesson? â€Å"You’ll never get out of the jungle that way.† Charleys Appreciation of Willy Lindas and Charley’s monologues on Willy fully and sympathetically show how tragic the character is:   CHARLEY: Nobody dast blame this man. You don’t understand: Willy was a salesman. And for a salesman, there is no rock bottom to the life. He don’t put a bolt to a nut, he don’t tell you the law or give you medicine. He’s a man way out there in the blue, riding on a smile and a shoeshine. And when they start not smiling back—that’s an earthquake. And then you get yourself a couple of spots on your hat, and you’re finished. Nobody dast blame this man. A salesman is got to dream, boy. It comes with the territory.  (Requiem) Charley utters this monologue during Willy’s funeral, where nobody but Willy’s family, himself, and his son Bernard show up. Charley had been lending Willy money for some time before the events of the play, and even though Willy always had quite a disparaging attitude towards him and his son (who was considered a nerd compared to Biff, the football star), Charley maintained an attitude of kindness. In particular, he defends Willy from Biff’s remarks, namely that he â€Å"had the wrong dreams† and â€Å"never knew who he was.† He goes on to define the attitude of salesmen, category of people whose livelihoods depend on successful interactions with customers. When their success rate wanes, so does their career and, according to the American values of the time, their life’s worth.

Test Anxiety Is A Fear Of Failing An Exam - 1203 Words

Test anxiety is a fear of failing an exam. This fear can typically occur either before or during an exam, which can result from the student unable to do their best. Though it is normal for everyone to feel nervous for an exam. However, when the fear for the exam starts to become excessive, it can then be difficult to concentrate and to recall the information. The severity of test anxiety varies from person to person. One may experience butterflies in their stomach while someone else may experience their heartbeat starting to race. Test anxiety is caused by two main factors, such as a biological and mental status. The biological cause is based on the hormone known as adrenaline. Adrenaline is a hormone that helps prepare the body for what is about to happen. However, the mental aspect to test anxiety is based on the students thought process. The symptoms for people that have test anxiety can vary from mild to severe. There are three main symptoms of test anxiety such as physical, cognitive and behavioral, and emotional. However, there are several ways that one can mange their test anxiety whether it’s by studying for only two hours a day, or if its by seeking medical help. So whatever the way the person decides to mange their anxiety, they should know that there anxiety does not have to be a worry anymore. When someone is experiencing test anxiety, it is when there is so much pressure that is put on them that they start to become anxious about doing well on the exam. InShow MoreRelatedThe Types Of Anxieties, Learners May Face During Examinations1183 Words   |  5 PagesThe Types of Anxieties, Learners May Face During Examinations. Anxiety can be of many types. Be it language anxiety, test anxiety or even speech anxiety and social anxiety. 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My firstRead MoreWhat Exam Really Say?1473 Words   |  6 PagesWhat Examinations Really Say? Everyone probably has that experience of unexpected failing. Habits are largely routine -- academic habits especially. And the fear is not the memory of a fear becoming true, but being afraid of what could occur down the road. Examinations are particularly relevant to this kind of fear. When applying for jobs, to institutions of higher learning, for a driver’s permit, the fear is not connected to anything you have done, but to what you might have neglected to do. DidRead MoreDreams And Dreams Are Important Or Meaningless Essay943 Words   |  4 Pagesthe issue and address it, the dreams will go away. Sigmund Freud, known as the father of psychoanalysis, considered dreams to be like a window into the unconscious state of mind. He explained dreams as â€Å"manifestations of our deepest desires and anxieties, often relating to repressed childhood memories or obsessions† (Freud). 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Second Language Aquisition free essay sample

Language Acquisition What is Second Language Acquisition? In second language learning, language plays an institutional and social role in the community. It functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their native tongue. In foreign language learning, language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom. The distinction between second and foreign language learning is what is learned and how it is learned. Slide 2: Learning a second language requires: 1. formal language instruction in an academic setting; 2. nteractions with the second language outside of the classroom; 3. pedagogical practices, strategies and methodologies which facilitate second language learning (how); and 4. teaching the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing along with comprehension and thinking (what). Slide 3: The study of second language acquisition involves: 1. how second languages are learned ( the proc ess); 2. how learners create a new language system with limited exposure (interactions); 3. language proficiency levels (competence and performance of the language); and 4. hy some learners achieve native-like proficiency. How Do Learners Acquire a Second Language? Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge). Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties. Slide 4: Learners acquire a second language by drawing on their background experiences and prior knowledge in their first language. They experiment with the second language by using features found in their first language which are similar to those in the second language. This dependence on the first language serves to help the learner construct an interlanguage, a transitional system consisting of the learner’s current second language knowledge. Communication strategies help the learners use what they already know to overcome breakdowns in communication. Slide 5: Individual differences affect second language acquisition. These differences may be developmental, cognitive, affective or social. There are factors that are fixed which we cannot control such as age and language learning aptitude. There are some variable factors such as motivation which are controlled by social setting and the course taken for developing the second language. Teachers need to know that variable factors are controlled through the learning environment, by knowing their students’ cognitive styles, their learning preferences, how they teach, and what they teach. Slide 6: There are many different types of learner strategies which teachers need to be aware of in order to understand the strategies children bring with them and how they learn best. Language learners may need to be taught strategies for relating new knowledge to prior knowledge, for organizing information more effectively and for seeking opportunities for communicating with target language speakers. Slide 7: Researchers identified a natural order of strategies for developing a second language. The order of development starts with the very simple imitation of a word or language structure, to self-talk, to self-correcting, and to role-playing. An awareness of this natural order can help teachers of second language learners plan lessons to facilitate language learning and increase the learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence. Slide 8: There are several theories of second language acquisition which have provided information on how second languages are learned. The Universalists studied a wide-range of languages to find out how languages vary and what makes them vary. They looked at language patterns, language universals (features of language which are common across many languages) as well as other properties of language. Slide 9: Universalists also claimed that language is acquired through innateness (nature) and that certain conditions trigger the development of language (nurture). The search for meaning is innate. Activities and instructional materials need to be presented in a meaningful, relevant and interesting manner in order to allow students to make language learning connections. Slide 10: Behaviorists claimed that learners learn by undergoing training and practice through a series of stimulus and response chains and operant conditioning. The environment provides the stimulus and the learner provides the response. According to the Behaviorist theory, reinforcement motivates the formation of a language habit. Behaviorist Theory (Continued) Theory When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains. Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive responses provided by the environment. The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to: 1. 2. 3. 4. respond to stimuli in a certain way; intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses; extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response (positive reward chains); and generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of S-R-R chains. Slide 11: Language learning requires effort and practice. Behaviorists further claimed that learners imitate or approximate productive responses. For instance, learning how to write is not universal across cultures because some cultures do not have a history of written language, therefore learning how to write involves a conscious effort and specific training, as well as a willingness to learn by trial and error. Responding to stimuli in this instance is critical in order for writing to take place. Slide 12: Nativists claimed that language learning is biologically determined. Each person is born with an innate ability to learn language. The basic innate language learning capacities are referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This view asserts that the environment only serves to trigger the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) which determines what children acquire. Children acquire much of their language ability before coming to school, thus supporting the innate structures argument. Nativist Theory (Continued) 1. 2. 3. the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment; Theory McNeill (1966) described the LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties: the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes that can be refined later; knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not; and the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system in order to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered. 4. Nativists have contributed to the discoveries of how the system of child language works. Theorists such as Chomsky, McNeill, and others helped us understand that a child’s language, at any given point, is a legitimate system in its own right. Slide 13: The Nativists also contend that learners actively construct grammar for themselves by actively listening to the language around them and trying to determine the patterns in the utterances. Learners progress through language in predictable stages. The learner will not respond to error correction if he/she is not developmentally ready. Slide 14: Cognitivists claimed that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of learning. They believed that human beings have the capacity for developing logical thinking. Acquiring knowledge is a cognitive process which involves automatic processing (rountinzed) and controlled (temporary) learning. Cognitivist Theory (Continued) Language Learning as a Cognitive Process 1. 2. Theory Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance. Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present. Activation is a learned response. Memory is a large collection of nodes. Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a sequence. Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have been used. Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i. e. knowing the ‘what’ of the language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge i. e. know the ‘how’ of the language system to employ strategies. 3. 4. 5. 6. Slide 15: The Cognitive theory underscores the fact that the learner brings an innate mental capacity to the learning task. He/she also brings perceptions of relationships between what he knows and what he/she needs to know. Learner strategies are used for learning the rules of a language and how to use the language for different audiences and purposes. Theories of Second Language Acquisition (Continued Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the development of language comes from the early interactions between infants and caregivers. Social interactionists stress: Theory the importance of a child’s interactions with parents and other caregivers; the importance of â€Å"motherese†; contributions of context and world knowledge; and the importance of goals Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in their negotiation of meaning to produce comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to provide adequate opportunities for target language use to allow learners to develop competence in the target language. Slide 16: Social interactionists believe that human language emerged from the social role that language plays in human interactions. They further believed that the environment plays a key role and that adults in the child’s linguistic environment are instrumental in language acquisition. Language learners need many opportunities for using the target language in order to develop competence. Slide 17: Social interaction is the key to language processing. Input from the social interactions provides a model for negotiation opportunities. Vygotsky (1978) believed that learners bring two levels of development to the learning: an actual developmental level and a potential developmental level. These two levels are referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development. Learners can move from actual development to proximal development through social interactions with others. Slide 18: Krashen proposed five hypotheses for second language acquisition. He explored the notion that acquisition is different from learning because one takes place in a natural environment while the other takes place in an academic setting. He further claimed that we learn language in a predictable order. Some language structures are learned earlier than others. The monitor is the self-correcting mechanism that learners use to edit what they say before they speak or write. The learner can overuse the monitor and stifle communication. Slide 19: Krashen proposed that when learners are provided with comprehensible input they acquire more. When the learner’s affective filter is up, this means that information is not reaching the learner. This may be because of fear, anxiety or low selfconfidence in language learning. The ideal situation is for the filter to be down so that the language acquisition device can receive the input necessary for language acquisition. Cummin’s Second Language Framework Cummins makes a distinction between social language and academic language. 1. Social language refers to the everyday conversational language which is supported by the use of illustrations, realia, demonstrations, etc. Context Embedded). Studies show that language learners acquire social language in approximately two years. Social language deals with the here-and-now language, therefore second language learners tend to acquire it faster. 2. Academic language is the language of school tasks which is more abstract and decontextualized (Context Reduced). Some second language learners who develop fluent spoken English have difficulties in reading and writing because they may be at different levels of proficiency while they are moving from social language (BICS) to academic language (CALP). It takes between five to seven years for second language learners to acquire academic language. Slide 20: James Cummins developed a framework for second language acquisition that involves the identification of both social and academic languages. The basic interpersonal communication skills are acquired from everyday use of the language and are supported by cues in the environment (context-embedded). The cognitive academic language proficiency is more abstract language which is not supported by environmental cues (context-reduced). Slides 21-22: Context-embedded tasks are for the most part cognitively undemanding because learners are able to depend on cues for assistance. There are some tasks that are context-embedded, more complex and impose cognitive demands. The learners in these situations can still rely on environmental cues for help. Slides 23-24: Context-reduced tasks can be both cognitively undemanding and cognitively demanding as well. Cognitively undemanding tasks are simple to carry out but do not contain environmental cues i. e. reading for personal purposes. Cognitively demanding, context-reduced tasks are more abstract and decontextualized. Slides 25-26: The components of communicative competence include: 1) grammatical competence which is knowing the structure of the language; 2) sociolinguistic competence which involves the use of the language for different audiences, purposes and norms of communication; 3) discourse competence which includes combing and connecting utterances both spoken and written; and 4) strategic competence which involves using language to meet communication goals. Slide 27: Competence is the underlying knowledge which is the mental representation of linguistic rules. This knowledge is nonobservable because it is internal. Performance is the overtly observable production of competence (comprehension and production of language). Slide 28: The three general principles of language learning include: 1) the law of exercise-active and repeated responses to stimuli (practice); 2) the law of effect-reinforcing learner responses (providing immediate corrective feedback); and 3) the principle of shaping-learning language through learning chunks (bit-bybit). Slide 29: These principles operate under the assumption that language learning is the formation of habit. The learner’s automatic responses were prompted by stimuli. Interesting and motivating stimuli turns responses into automatic, routinized learning. The level of difficulty required to learn a second language depends on the amount of time it takes to learn a second language pattern. The time from which controlled responses (short-term) turn into automatic responses (long-term) is dependent on learner differences, learning conditions, and teaching pedagogy. Input and Interaction L2 acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the second language. This input may come in written or spoken form. Spoken input occurs in face-to-face interactions. Non-reciprocal discourse includes listening to the radio or watching a film. Behaviorists claim that presenting learners with input in the right doses and then reinforcing their attempts to practice them can control the process of acquisition. Chomsky pointed out that in many cases there was a very poor match between the kind of language found in the input that learners received and the kind of language they themselves produced. Comprehensible input (Krashen’s, 1985 Input Hypothesis) proposed that learners acquire morphological features in a natural order as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Long (1981a) argued that input which is made comprehensible by means of the conversational adjustments that occur when there is a comprehension problem is especially important for acquisition. Swain (1985) proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis which states that learners need opportunities for â€Å"pushed output† in speech or writing that makes demands on them for correct and appropriate use of the L2. Slide 30: Input and interaction are very important factors in second language acquisition. Second language acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the target language. Teachers can provide comprehensible input in their instructional delivery coupled with opportunities for interactions. Adjustments are made in order to facilitate the comprehension of messages. Just as important is comprehensible output. Learners need to be given opportunities to produce spoken or written discourse which forces them to use correct and appropriate use of the second language. The Role of the Native Language in Second Language Acquisition Language Trans fer The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as â€Å"language transfer. † It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively on their native language. According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the distribution of the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture. This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language. This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by native speakers. Lado’s work and much of the work of that time (1950’s) was based on the need to produce pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language and the target language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages. Slide 31: The first language has a distinct role in second language acquisition. When language learners have a strong linguistic and communicative foundation in their native language, then the process of second language acquisition involves language transfer. Learners transfer forms and meanings as they attempt to speak or write the second language. Transfer takes on a receptive role when the learners listen to native speakers of the language and try to understand what is being said. Similarities in the two languages are transferred positively (language facilitation), while differences cause a nonproductive transfer (language interference). Framework for Explaining L1 Transfer Language Trans fer The L1 system is used for both comprehension and production. The interlanguage system is also used in comprehending and receiving messages. The L1 system is used in hypothesis construction responsible for interlanguage development. Comprehensible input serves as a major source of information for hypothesis construction. L2 output may be used for hypothesis construction. Slide 32: Language learners rely on their first language to produce language and to comprehend it. Hypotheses construction of language comes when learners manipulate and test language forms to further their interlanguage, the stages of development between L1 and L2. The second language output helps the learner test hypotheses of how language works and helps them construct new ones. Teachers provide comprehensible input in order to help learners acquire information for hypotheses construction. Slide 33: Language transfer is a cognitive process which involves the strategic use of the first language in learning the second language. The flexible thinking that occurs in the learner’s mind is representative of the interconnectedness between the two languages. Bi-cognitive thinking occurs spontaneously and with great ease. Learners think in their first language, transfer that thinking into the second language and then produce the utterances that meet the communication situation. There is a distinction between transfer experienced for communication purposes and transfer experienced for second language learning. First language transfer helps the learner receive and produce messages for communication purposes. Transfer in learning situations happens when the learner uses the first language to formulate hypotheses about second language rules. Language Language Transfer Trans fer Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through positive transfer to the native-language pattern. Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors occurred resulting from negative transfer. Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists claims. This re-evaluation included area such as: the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior to the language behavior of humans were pointed out; 2. the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where language behavior was concerned; 3. nalogy could not account for the language user’s ability to generate totally novel utterances; and 4. studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely corrected their children’s linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the importance of reinforcement in language learning. All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L1 in L2 learning. 1. Slide 34: When language feat ures in the two languages are similar, positive transfer from the first language to the second language occurs. When language features in the two languages are different, learning difficulties and errors happen. This transfer process made it evident to researchers that the native language definitely plays a major role in second language acquisition. The Nature of the Interlanguage Continuum Cognitive theories of interlanguage claim that with the assistance of learning strategies, learners build mental grammars of the second language. Learners draw on the rules they have constructed to interpret and produce utterances. Learner’s utterances are only erroneous with reference to the target language norms, not to the norms of their own grammars. The interlanguage continuum consists of a series of overlapping grammars. Each share some rules with the previously constructed grammar, but also contains some new or revised rules. A rule has the status of a hypothesis. Slide 35: The implication of the interlanguage continuum for teachers is that with assistance from learning strategies, learners are able to build mental grammars (rules) of the second language. The continuum represents different interlanguage stages (overlapping grammars) that the learners go through to use the rules they have learned to interpret and produce speech. Rules are classified hypotheses because the learner tests certain language rules in his/her development. Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learner’s system and gives the system a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language or target language system, rather it falls between the two. Stages of Interlanguage Development include: 1) random errors (presystematic); 2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing; 3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production; 4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors; 5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency; 6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and 7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i. . spelling). Interlanguage Continuum Interlanguage Stages L1 L2 ______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______ Basilang Mesolang Acrolang Slide 36: Each of the stages of the interlanguage continuum represents each grammar that the learner builds which represents more complexity as he/she moves on the continuum. Second language learners begin in t heir first language and as teachers provide the formal and informal second language instruction, learners move forward in their development. When learners encounter difficulties in any of their interlanguage stages, they can fossilize (learning stops at some given point) or they may experience backsliding (regression). The continuum can be related to language learner categories used for identifying bilingual/ESL students. Basilang is equivalent to the beginner; mesolang is the category of an intermediate learner; and acrolang is the category for the advanced learner. Slide 37: The identification of errors that language learners make is important in order to understand the source of errors and the corrective measures teachers can offer. Errors happen when learners lack knowledge of second language rules, while mistakes occur when learners are unable to perform their competence (underlying knowledge that is non-observable). Overt errors are deviations in form and covert errors are those that are well-formed but do not communicate what the learner intended. Learner Errors Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning processes. Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L2 acquisition was the result of L1 transfer or creative construction (construction of unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of acquiring the native language). The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer (interlingual), while those errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were indicative of creative construction (intralingual). The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by transferring L1 habits, many more were not. It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors varied according to their level of development. Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what learners could do correctly. Slide 38: For teachers of English language learners, it is important to understand the role of errors in second language learning. Error analysis is important because it gives us the opportunity to examine learner errors and determine if errors are a consequence of first language interference or not. Implications for teachers come in planning instruction that addresses patterns in errors made by students experiencing language interference, grouping practices to target the identified errors, and instructional methodologies and strategies for helping learners overcome some of their errors. Slide 39: Errors made by a language learner can give teachers insight as to how much knowledge the learner has in the second language. They are a means of diagnosing progress or lack of progress in second language development. Errors are to be seen as part of a process of second language acquisition not just as the result of imperfect learning. Slide 40: Errors are systematic and will occur until the language learner recognizes them and corrects them. If communication is clear, even when learners produce errors such as â€Å"no want† then the error is in the language structure and not in the learner’s system (interlanguage). Slide 41: Contrastive analysis helps teachers understand potential errors language learners make. This understanding will allow teachers to identify what needs to be learned and what is already in the learner’s system. What needs to be learned will be the focus of instruction and what is already learned will be the knowledge the learner brings to the learning situations. The pedagogical materials that resulted from contrastive analysis were based on the claim that language is a habit; language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits; the native language interferes with the reception and production of a second language; and accounting for errors involves considering differences between the first and the second languages. The greater the differences the more errors will occur; and difficulty and ease in learning a second language are determined by differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast. Slide 42: Thomas and Collier (1997), proposed the Prism Model of Language Acquisition for School. This model includes first and second language cognitive development, academic development, language development as well as social and cultural processes. Slide 43: The cognitive development component is a subconscious process that is developmental. Thought processes are built through interactions. It is critical that cognitive development take place in the first language so that the foundation is strong and positive transfer of skills and concepts occurs. Slide 44: Academic knowledge, concepts and skills transfer from the first to the second language. In order to make the necessary instructional adjustments, teachers need to provide instruction in the learners’ first language and a strong English as a Second Language component during the instructional day in order to make academic content meaningful. The interruption of academic development in the first language will likely promote academic failure. A good balance of academic instruction (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) in the first language and vocabulary and oral language development (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) through ESL will facilitate language transfer and transition when the learner is ready. According to research, it takes a language learner from 5-7 years to reach academic proficiency in the second language. It takes from 2-3 years to acquire BICS. Therefore, teaching BICS in the two languages and having a strong ESL program are essential if language learners are to be ready for transitioning from the first to the second language. Slide 45: Language development includes Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) which are acquired subconsciously as well as the innate ability learners bring with them to the academic setting (CALP). In order to assure both cognitive and academic success in learning a second language, the learner must be taught in his/her first language to a high cognitive level so that the learner can develop the necessary competence and performance in the second language. Slide 46: Second language learners go through everyday experiences which impact the acquisition of the second language. The home-school connection is very important in order to help language learners respond to second language learning more effectively. The sociocultural support that language learners need must be evident at home, at school, in the community and in society at large. The instructional environment can either create social unity, linguistic and ethnic respect, and value for bilingualism or it may promote a psychological distance between two groups, cultures and languages. Slide 47: In conclusion, teachers working with second language learners must consider the learners’ linguistic, cultural, and academic needs, as well as the levels of language proficiency. Teachers should encourage their students to experiment with language and not be afraid of making errors. Errors are part of the learning process just as error correction is part of the teaching process. Teachers should not ignore errors, but focusing too much on them can cause anxiety, fear and hamper learning.

Verbal Communication Essay Research Paper Child AbuseWhat free essay sample

Verbal Communication Essay, Research Paper Child Abuse What is child abuse? It is the physical or emotional maltreatment of a kid by a parent, guardian, or other individual. Reports of kid maltreatment, including sexual maltreatment, whipping, and slaying, have climbed in the United States and some governments believe that the figure of instances is mostly under reported. Child disregard is sometimes included in legal definitions of kid maltreatment to cover cases of malnutrition, abandonment, and unequal attention of a kid # 8217 ; s safety. When reported, kid maltreatment instances are complicated by unequal Foster attention services and a legal system that has problem suiting the suggestible nature of kids, who are frequently developmentally unable to separate fact from pretend ( Hay, 1996 ) . Many kids suffer at the custodies of grownups # 8211 ; frequently their ain parents. They are beaten, kicked, thrown into walls, and/or burned with coffin nails. They have their caputs held under the H2O of lavatory bowls, are scalded by hot H2O or they are forced to stand in stop deading showers until they pass out. We will write a custom essay sample on Verbal Communication Essay Research Paper Child AbuseWhat or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A kid could be stuffed into running rinsing machines or sexually molested, suffer from disregard in the signifiers of famishment and deficiency of medical attending, and still travel unnoticed by foreigners. In fact, it is estimated that three kids die every twenty-four hours in the U.S. entirely from one signifier of kid maltreatment or another. It is a nauseating pattern that has no set criterion of regulations to complete off the persisting job. Different provinces have different methods and bureaus to assist forestall maltreatment in the place, some work rather good while others bomb # 8211 ; a unsafe gamble when it comes to the life or mental province of a kid. I have seen kid abuse first manus and up near. I serve on the Advisory Board and Board of Directors for Lutheran Social Services, Foster Care Division of Michigan. It is shocking, immoral and bosom wrenching to see how grownups can handle kids. The married woman and myself have fostered many kids. They have come out of some really dysfunctional places. Some of the kids we fostered have been sexually molested and severely abuse by their ain parents. What makes it so bad is that most of the kids think that this is acceptable behaviour and would travel back to their places if they could. We had one small male child who would instead eat out of the refuse than sit at the tabular array to eat. We fostered another household of two male childs and two misss. Their male parent and uncle had sexually abused them all. These kids ranged from 7 to 12 old ages of age. While these kids were populating with us, we had caught them several times commiting each other in a sexual mode. They thought thi s was normal and acceptable behaviour. I besides know of a batch of instances where kids even die at the custodies of their on parents. What has our society go? You find in a batch of instance where the culprit has been perpetrated. Approximately 1 in 6 male childs is sexually abused before the age of 16. Dr. William C. Holmes of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine said that when sexually abused male childs are non treated, society must subsequently cover with the ensuing jobs, including offenses, self-destruction, drug usage, and more sexual maltreatment. This rhythm must be broken. This job affects everyone. Most child maltreatment takes topographic point in the place and is started by individuals are know to and trusted by the kid. Even though it h as been widely publicized, maltreatment in day-care and foster-care scenes histories for merely a little figure of confirmed instances of kid maltreatment. In 1996, merely two per centum of all confirmed instances of kid maltreatment occurred in these scenes. Child abuse if 15 times more likely to happen in households where spousal maltreatment occurs. Children are three times more likely to be abused by their male parents than by their female parents. No differences have been found in the incidence of kid maltreatment in rural versus urban countries. Following are the types of maltreatment and the per centums of the different types. Neglect # 8211 ; 54 % Physical maltreatment # 8211 ; 25 % Sexual maltreatment # 8211 ; 11 % Emotional maltreatment # 8211 ; 3 % Other # 8211 ; 7 % ( Davis, 1998 ) . There are many parents that need aid in rearing. One of the ways to assist parents is to do certain their basic demands are met. Until parents # 8217 ; basic demands are met, they may happen it hard to run into the demands of their kids. The first thing parents need is aid in run intoing their basic demands for nutrient, shelter, vesture, safety and medical attention, reding and ECT. Merely when these demands are met can higher demands be addressed ( Rushton, 1997 ) . Another way8 to assist should be to place and handle parents who abuse intoxicant or drugs, and place and advocate parents who suffer from spousal maltreatment. Identifying and handling parents with psychologic jobs is besides of import. Other issues that need attending include fiscal concerns, and employment and legal jobs. Supplying an empathic ear and being a beginning of referral for aid with these issues may take doctors a long manner toward fostering destitute parents. The following higher degree of demand includ es instruction about clip direction and budgeting accomplishments, emphasis direction, get bying and rearing accomplishments such as appropriate subject, cognition of kid development, nutrition and eating jobs, and safety issues ( Rushton, 1997 ) . In my decision, many things need to go on at international, national, province and community degrees to forestall kid maltreatment. Surveies have shown that states with the most generous societal services have the lowest rate of kid homicide. Peoples should buttonhole for greater handiness of drug and intoxicant intervention plans, more shelters for the homeless, more accessible mental wellness attention and more shelters for abused adult females and kids. These plans and those that provide rearing accomplishments, support groups and reprieve attention for parents and attention givers should be available in every community. Child maltreatment is a complex job with many causes, it is of import that people non take a defeatist attitude toward its bar. Despite the absence of strong grounds to steer preventative attempts, society can make things to seek to forestall maltreatment. Showing increased concern for the parents or health professionals and increasing efforts to heighten their accomplishments as parents or attention givers may assist salvage the most vulnerable people, our kids, from the incubus of maltreatment and disregard. Plants Cited Hay, T. # 8220 ; Social Interventions to Prevent Child Abuse and Neglect. # 8221 ; Child Welfare 5 February 1996: 379-403. Rushton, Frank. # 8220 ; The Role of Health Care in Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention. # 8221 ; Pediatricss March 1997: 133-136. Davis, Laura. Stop Domestic Violence. New York: Macmillan, 1998.

Structure and Functions of Education free essay sample

Introduction: Education is a lifelong process. It begins the day we are born and ends the day we day we die. Found in every society, it comes in many forms ranging from the school of hard knocks or learning by experience to formal institutional learning from postindustrial to non-industrial communities, from rural to urban settings and from youth to older person. Education is commonly defined as cultivation, transmission of knowledge, and skill development that is imparted from an older to a younger generation. Historically, education is closely related to organized society. The institutionalization of the education system, more recently, posed a set of questions in social sciences that addressed and explored the link of education to society in a more systematic manner. Philosophy has customarily inquired into the nature of educational aims that best serve current or aspired forms of social organization. Education is a social institution that sociologists are very interested in studying. We will write a custom essay sample on Structure and Functions of Education or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They are interested in all types of learning process, formal and informal. This includes teaching formal knowledge such as reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as eaching other things such as morals, values, and ethics. Education prepares young people for entry into society and is thus a form of socialization. Sociologists want to know how this form of socialization affects and are affected by other social structures, experiences, and outcomes. Sociology attempts to explore the relationship of education to the functioning of other societal institutions in causal terms, employing for this purpose the concept function; theorizing on this relation flared up during the 1960s to 1980s in western countries. Sociology of education is a field that focuses on two separate levels of analysis. At a acro-level, sociologists work to identify how various social forces, such as politics, economics, culture, etc. , creates variation in schools. At a micro-level, sociologists look to identify how variation in school practices lead to differences in individual-level student outcomes. 2. Sociology of Education: The sociology of education provided important insights to the ways in which school affects individuals and groups. It is the application of sociological theories, perspectives and research methods to an analysis of educational process and Peter Snelson (1974) defines education as a condition of human survival. It is the eans where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation. Peter Herold (1968) defines sociology of education as the study of the origin of organizations, institutions and development of human society. His definition refers to the study of sociology of education by using the historical approach. It studies initial specific conditions. Emil Durkheim (1858-1917) who regarded as the father of sociology of education clearly defines sociology of education as a systematic study sociological perspective.

Co-ownership on Family Home Essay Example

Co Co-ownership on Family Home Essay Co-ownership on Family Home Essay in Baumgartner v Baumgartner30, the court held that the foundation for the imposition of a constructive trust was that a refusal to recognise the existence of the equitable interest amounts to unconscionable conduct and that the trust is imposed as a remedy to circumvent that. The majority of the judges here considered the determination of the terms of a constructive trust in such cases. The Baumgartner 31principles, if properly applied, may achieve a reasonable degree of justice and equity in the determination of de facto property issues. However, there lacked clear guidance and reasonable predictability, and hence a difficulty to advise clients. The non-recognition of non-financial contributions means that, to succeed, a party must establish a Baumgartner 32type constructive trust or other equitable device. While the current position is a significant advance on the common law regime for resolving property issues between cohabitants on relationship breakdown, it remains imperfect and fragmented. In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada in Pettkus v Becker33 used the constructive trust to award a woman an equal share in property acquired by her partner during a nineteen-year relationship, in which both were working together on a farm, concluding that he would be unjustly enriched if her contribution to the acquisition of this property was not recognised. The constructive trust in Canada has evolved into a broad equitable remedy for giving property based recognition for domestic contributions at the end of a non-marital relationship. This is seen in Peter v Beblow34, whereby, MacLachlin J made it clear that this constructive trust claim could be based on purely domestic contributions and in Nowell v Town Estate35 where the Court invoked the related doctrine of unjust enrichment to award a woman $300,000 after the end of a 30-year quasi-spousal relation-ship, despite the fact that the man continued to maintain his primary residence with his wife throughout the relationship. It is clear that the corpus is made up of English thinking with the traditional analysis, Australian bringing about quasi-marital property division with a constructive trust but on the basis of unconscionability, and in Canada good conscience as well as unjust enrichment. However, it remains unclear how receptive the courts are to the notions of unconscionability and unjust enrichment being the underlying principles of estoppel. This willingness does not appear to be obvious across the board and the approach of the English courts has become too rule-orientated. One of the significant shortcomings in the English law is that the courts may have become too rule-orientated, in searching for legal clarity, as reflected by the rigid interpretation of Rosset36 and, in particular, the requirement for direct financial contributions. Once the courts recognise that the common intention approach need not be dictated solely by the rigid rule, it allows greater flexibility for the courts to take into consideration a wider range of contributions, direct and indirect. The courts assessment should include consideration of the whole course of conduct between the parties, as well as the effects of sexual division of labour in the relationship and how that may impact on the claimants resources in terms of making contributions, whether direct or indirect, towards the relationship. Refocusing on these issues may cover the way for a principled basis of deciding family property disputes which is less gender biased. No doubt, it would be an easier approach to protect the cohabitants through the passing of legislation similar to those that protect married couples and civil partners and this seems to be the case today after the suggested reforms seen in Cohabitation: The Financial Consequences of Relationship Breakdown37 and Sharing Homes38 by the Law Commission. The vital importance throughout common law history of the trust creators intent has left instead a shifting sand of theory of what it is that constitutes a trust. All the adjectives express, implied, resulting, and constructive merely had us chasing the peripheral. Hence, it is undeniable that a better change is needed to mend the imperfection identified above.

Rise of modern Chinese Nationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Rise of modern Chinese Nationalism - Essay Example In one of its earliest forms during the early twentieth century, Chinese movement led by the Han majority began to overthrow the Qing dynasty under which China was ruled by the Manchu .Ethnic nationalism views the nation as politicized ethnic group and often produces a state -seeking movement to create an ethnic nation-state. After the fall of the Qing in 19121, the Kuomintang (KMT) and the CCP in 1949 defined as a multi ethnic political community. In general the rise of modern nationalism in China has played a great role in the contemporary China. Therefore the nature and role of this Nationalism can be assessed in terms of economical aspects, political conditions, military developments and enhancement of foreign relations as explained below:- Prior to 1978, the Chinese economy was centrally planned. However, after this period the Chinese leadership, started moving the economy to a more market oriented system .The system still works under the control of the communist, but the economic influence as non-state managers and enterprises has been increasing steadily. The Chinese authorities have adopted a system of household responsibility in agriculture instead of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small scale enterprise in services and manufacturing, as well as opened the economy of increased foreign trade and investment. The developments of economic growth in china can be assessed in the the following sectors. b) Agriculture. China is the largest producer and consumer of agricultural products. Half of China's labor force is engaged in agriculture, even though only 10% of the land is suitable for cultivation and agriculture contribute only 13% of china's GDP. China produces about 30% more crops and livestock than U.S. because of intensive cultivation. Largely china produces rice, wheat, Soya beans, vegetables, tea and pork. Major food crops include cotton, fibers and oil seeds. c) Industry. Industry has posted major gains especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan where foreign investment helped spurs output of both domestic and export goods. Major industries are mining or processing, steel, aluminum, coal, machinery, textile, Petroleum, cement, fertilizers, toys, electronics, automobiles and telecommunications. d) Science and Technology. China's political leadership comes almost from technical background and has a high regard for science. Chinese science strategists see China's greatest opportunities in newly emerging fields such as biotechnology and computers. Further US-China science and technology has remained the framework for bilateral cooperation. Recently technology agreement was to extend science and technology. Agreement was signed the agreement. The agreement covers cooperation in areas such as Marine conservation, renewable energy and health. e) Trade: China has advanced in Trade. China's primary trading

The Joy of Graduating Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Joy of Graduating - Essay Example In addition, during summer, just like her then oncoming sophomore year, she went through a course on international law and took in an internship which lasted 50 hours (Lombardi 1). Danielle was named a valedictorian, which she did not expect. According to the author, a valedictorian season has just ended and students are receiving accolades for being the best performers academically in the school. However, the path to that honor has become more competitive lately. A number of aspects such as the rise in the number of high school scholars, inflation of grade, strong competition for acceptance in collage and a well-informed student body have transformed the game. One of the characteristics of the valedictorian is that they strategize to win, by taking an intense load of A.P courses that are weighted during calculation of the average grades. Some of them keep off from creative courses, such as art or photography, since in creative courses, grading can be biased while having a grade B can mess their target. In most of the cases, enthusiasm for valedictorian honors has resulted into lawsuits. For example, in Danielle’s high school, a high school senior is said to have sued the district in an attempt to be declared valedictorian (Lombardi, 1). Some valedictorians end up suffering from chronic fatigue syndrome like Ms. Hornstine, who is claimed to have maneuvered the system and her claim brought an outcry in the society. Later, her acceptance to Harvard was nullified following allegations that her articles for the local daily were plagiarized (Lombardi, 1). Most of the valedictorians end up sharing the position. For example, this year, Susannah and Brett are the co-valedictorians in Horace Greeley High School. Even though nobody would speak to give evidence, stories about competed grade point means spread and brought hatred. However, Susannah and Brett showed a united front, explaining how they

World War 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

World War 3 - Essay Example Therefore, he outlined the major factors that would contribute to this war. Thus, according to Mills, the following factors would contribute to the occurrence of the third world war: Power Elites created by the US industrial complex According to C. Wright Mills, the structure of national policy was centered on politics and military supremacy. Therefore, if a country had to achieve economic prosperity, it had to be superior on the war front and in its military organization (Goertzel, 242). Thus, economic prosperity was to be achieved through the assertion of political and military power, instead of applying the economic principles which drive the economy. Therefore, the economic elites who lead major organizations were also the same who drove the political life of both the USA and the USSR, the major rivals in the foreseen war (Goertzel, 242). Making the political power an elite component, where the political and military authority was centered on the economic elite’s point of view posed some war danger. According to Mills, the political, the military and the economic elites shared a common world view (Goertzel, 243).... Mills observed that the elites were using the media as their tool of manipulation and propaganda to mislead the masses, whom they considered inferior. Therefore, with the economic elites at the helm of political and military authority, a devastating war was inevitable (Goertzel, 242). The conspiracy and poor definition of reality According to the Americans, the enemy of the people was Russia. This faulty definition, which substituted the reality with the preconceived notion of a specified enemy, could ultimately cause another devastating war (Goertzel, 241). The actual definition of the enemy is war, since any war, irrespective of the parties involved, has the same damaging effects. Therefore, while the Americans substituted the real definition of the enemy and personalize it to suit their interest, they created an environment for pursuing the wrong target (Goertzel, 243). If the American could perceive war as the common enemy, they would work towards ensuring that no more war could be experienced in the world, owing to the damaging effects caused by the previous world wars. Nevertheless, through the erratic perception of Russia as the enemy, they were determined to continue the warfare until they subdued it (Goertzel, 243). This inevitably made the third World War a reality that could not be escaped. Additionally, the Americans based their arguments on a false premise that peace with the USSR could not be achieved unless through war. This made it clear that the Americans would pursue the Russians. The same case applied for the Russians, who perceived the USA as an aggressive opponent, who could not relent until a war determined who was powerful. This prepared a stage for the most devastating war in the history of the world, which could

Normal Flora and their Benefits

Normal Flora and their Benefits Normal Flora and their benefit The normal flora is a bacteria found in or on ones bodies on a temporary basis without causing disease. In that respect are larger numbers of bacteria than cells present in ones body. The human body contains around 1013 cells, whereas the human physical structure is home to around 1014 bacteria. One-fourth of fecal weight consists of bacteria. They mainly inhabit the Large Intestine. They are likewise set up in the respiratory tract, particularly the nose, the Digestive tract, i.e., in the oral cavity and the terminal ileum and also in the Urinary tract. Discussion The normal flora of humans are extremely composite and comprises of more than 200 species of bacteria. The physical composition of a typical plant life gets influenced by several agents, including genetics, age, sex, strain, nutrition and diet of the mortal. The normal flora of the digestive tract The stomach contains fewer bacteria due to its high acidity nature. However, there are some bacteria that survive there like the Helicobacter Pylori whose human interaction got discovered in the 1980s and that is currently proving to be the cause of most cases of gastritis and peptic ulcers. Likewise, the small intestine contains small numbers of Streptococci, Lactobacilli, and yeasts, particularly Candida Albicans. Nevertheless, bigger numbers of these bacteria are found in the lower parts of the ileum, which is a section of the small intestine before the large intestine. The colon is the main site for bacteria in the body. Several bacteria like Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Coliforms (e.g. E. coli), Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and Clostridium reside in the large intestine. Approximately twenty percent of the faeces of an ordinary person consist of bacteria, most of which have come from the colon. The respiratory Tracts Normal Flora. A large number of bacterial species inhabit the upper respiratory tract since it lacks ciliated epithelium that is an efficient cleansing action. For example, the nostrils are always heavily colonized, with Staphylococcus epidermis. The Microbe of the Skin Man’s epidermis is not a fertile region for microorganisms to inhabit since the surface is comparatively dry and somewhat acidic. It, therefore, impede the development of many microbes but, however, inhabited by few that have adjusted to the skin. An example is the Propionibacterium acne and the Staphylococcus epidermidis. The Nostrils Normal Flora. Organisms’ nostrils are a habitat to the Gram-positive pathogens as Staphylococcus aureus. The Microorganism is recognised well for its duty in health centres in which it is the primary causal agent of systemic infection and surgical injury. Thither are many dissimilar types of kinship that the body can induce with the normal flora. These are: Mutualism. In this type of relationship, both the Microbe, and the host benefit from the relationship. For instance, the E. Coli. These organisms reside in the intestines, where they get nourishment, and in turn produce Vitamin K, that the human body requires for the cognitive operation of the blood coagulation. In essence, as the Microbe acquires a stable contribution of nutrients, stable environment, protection and interest, the host also obtains individual nutritional and digestive gains as well as the development and natural action of the immune system which protects it against the pathogenic infection by the microbes. Commensalism. Commensalism refers to a kind of kinship in which one collaborator of the association benefits, while the other collaborator neither benefits nor get harmed. Parasitism. This kind of relationship is one in which one organism benefits at the expense of the other. However, mostly, the Microorganism benefits at the cost of the ringmaster. For instance, an external parasite is said to cause infestation while an internal parasite is said to cause infection to the host. Pathogenic. This sort of relationship is one in which the microorganism causes destruction to the ringmaster during infection. An Opportunistic Pathogen causes an infection in the host that is physically impaired or debilitated. Mostly, the opportunist organism is harmless; however, it takes advantage when the hosts defenses are impaired, for example, when the immune system is being suppressed by drug treatment or other illnesses. Characteristics of the Normal Flora The Normal flora exhibit certain characteristics. These are: Not disease-inducing: They normal flora are also known as Microbiota and are not typical disease causing micro-organisms found in and on healthy individuals. Very abundant: The normal flora are extremely abundant in terms of sheer numbers. For instance, an ordinary human has approximately 1013 body cells and 1014 individual normal flora. All found externally: Normal flora are found more often than not on the skin, eyes, nose, oral fissure as well as on the throat and lower parts of the urethra and the large intestine Benefits of the Normal Flora There is an increased ability of the host to nourish itself since the bacteria Produce vitamins that the human body is ineffective to give forth like vitamin B12 and vitamin K. They help digest food as they break down foodstuffs that are normally indigestible by the host into forms that are easily digestible by the hosts. The Normal flora protects the host against infection by pathogenic organisms. similarly, this takes place as the normal flora out-competes the invader for available nutrients, therefore, starving the invader and preventing it from reproducing. Likewise, the normal flora may pre-occupy the favorable ecological niches for bacteria, e.g. the intestinal villi, so confronting the invading pathogen with the trouble of getting somewhere to anchor itself. Similarly, certain members of the normal flora produce anti-bacterial chemicals as a side product of their metabolism, therefore, taking a local antibiotic effect which hinders the invader. The Normal flora helps in hiking up ones immune system. The germ-free animals given birth to and brought up in a germ free environment are very susceptible to disease when transferred from the germ free environment since their immune system is still underdeveloped. Therefore, the presence of the Normal flora helps in protecting the human body from highly pathogenic organisms. They synthesizes and excrete vitamins in surplus of their individual wants, which are useful to the host and which can be taken in as nutrients. For instance, in humans body, enteric microorganisms produce and discharge Vitamin K and B12 whereas lactic acid microorganisms release vitamin B that are mostly utilized by the host as nutrients. The microbes as well harbor colonization by microorganisms by contending for attachment places as well as for the essential nutrients. Consequently, this is considered their most significant profitable effect, that presents itself in the mouth, the bowel, the epidermis as well as in the vaginal epithelial tissues. The Microbes induces the production of natural antibodies and thus contribute to the immunity in the human body. likewise by stimulating low levels of circulating and secretory antibodies, they enhance the bodies immunity. It may also counteract other microorganisms through the output of substances that stamp down and bottle up non-endemic classifications. The intestinal microorganisms fabricate a diversity of materials ranging from non-distinct fatty acids to distinct bacteriocins, that stamp and kill other microorganisms. The microorganisms induce the growth of particular body tissues which include the individual lymphatic tissues and the caecum within the GI region.The caecum of bacterium-free organisms is thin walled, filled with fluids a well as enlarged in size in comparison to the ones in standard animals. Likewise, found upon the capacity to withstand immunological stimulation, the enteric lymphatic materials of the Conventional animals are highly developed as compared to those of the germ-free animals. They stimulate an immunological response, in particular, an antibody-mediated immune response as they act as antigens in the human body. Low volumes of antibodies brought forth against the constituents of the microbes are acknowledged to respond with particular related microorganisms, and thus preventing infection as well as invasion of the human body. The antibodies fabricated against the antigen ingredients of the microbes are at times known as inborn antibodies, and which lack in bacterium-free organisms. Intestinal human flora carry out a diverseness of all-important metabolic reactions that give rise to various compounds. The compounds include vitamins B12 and K and gas. Conclusion The Normal Flora as well has limitations to the human body. For instance, Most flora are pathogens and; therefore, they may be agents of diseases. Similarly, if they gain access to certain issues, they may cause infections as well as destruction. Likewise, the Microbe may absorb some of the hosts’ nutrients due to competition, leading to the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance in humans. Works Cited Bitton G., and Marshall KC: Adsorption of Microorganisms to Surfaces. John Wiley Sons, New York, 1980 . English MP,. Microbes, Man, and Animals: The Natural History of Microbial Interactions. New York: Wiley. 1982. Print Hillman JD., Genetically modified Streptococcus mutans for the prevention of dental caries. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek .2002 Postgate JR. Microbes and Man. Oxford, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. 2000. Draser BS., and Hill MJ: Human Intestinal Flora. Academic Press, London, 1974. Relman DA, and Falkow S. The meaning and impact of the human genome sequence for microbiology. Trends Microbiol. 2001. Salyers AA., and Whitt DD. Microbiology: Diversity, Disease and the Environment. Bethesda Maryland: Fitzgerald Science Press. 2000. Staley JT., and Reysenbach AL. Biodiversity of Microbial Life: Foundation of Earth’s Biosphere. New York: Wiley. 2002. Print

Multifactorial Model of Health Psychology

The multifactorial model in health psychology is a leading paradigm that recognizes the multi-faceted nature of illnesses. It is not a clear-cut, simple case that a disease is caused by a singular factor. The fact is that decades if not over a century of modern research has led to the recognition that a host of factors, as well as their interactions, function in illness and health determination (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). These varied factors that the multifactorial model indicates to be the range of possible influences or causes of diseases cover the psychological, sociocultural, environmental, and stressors. This broad range of factors, which include both those within and without one's control, determine an individual's health and his/her level of susceptibility to health problems (Nevid & Rathus, p. 127). Psychological or personality and behavior factors figure in quite a large number of health problems. Such is seen in the large number of preventable deaths that occur yearly in the United States. For one, smoking leads to way over 400,000 annual deaths from cancer, diseases of the heart and lungs, and stroke. Some 300,000 year deaths stroke, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes can actually be prevented with good diet and proper exercise. Immunizations, moderation or control of alcohol drinking, and abstinence or safe sex practices could also help prevent deaths from infectious diseases, vehicular and other accidents/injuries, and sexually transmitted diseases, respectively (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). It should be well noted that depression and other negative psychological states could actually render an impaired immune system functioning (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). The reason for this is that, contrary to popular thinking, the mental and the physical are not entirely separate domains but, rather intertwined (Nevid & Rathus, p. 131). Biological factors include age, gender, genetics, as well as injuries, exposure to pathogens and inoculations. One's genetic make-up, while beyond an individual's capacity to be altered, tend to make certain people falsely assume that their health is doomed by, say, a family history of diabetes. Having a family history of a disease can make some people think fatalistically that nothing they do can improve their chances of overcoming or escaping a disease. Dr. Robert N. Hoover of the National Cancer Institute, however, says that many cases of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and others merely give rise to predispositions, not really certainties (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). Environmental factors include pollution, water quality, hygiene from solid waster treatment and sanitation, natural disasters, and even global warming and depletion of the ozone layer. Personal stressors cover a wide range of situations such as daily hassles at home, co-workers, time pressure, and financial insecurity; frustrations; major life changes; workplace situation; and isolation or rejection by peers (Nevid & Rathus, p. 27). Thus, in the diagnosis of illnesses, the multifactorial model considers the possible roles played by psychological, biological, environmental/cultural factors, along with their interactions (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). In the United States, the application of the psychological health model can be seen in studies that attempt to explain the phenomenon of black Americans seemingly suffering from health problems more compared to the European Americans. The ethnicity consideration has led to studies showing that African-Americans may indeed be genetically predisposed to hypertension but, at the same time, poor diet, stress and smoking contribute to the development of the disease. Such consideration has also led to findings that the tendency of Afro-Americans to have lower access level to quality health care help explain, for instance, why they are less prone to receive surgeries for hip and knee replacements (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). Use of Psychology in Understanding Illnesses Diagnosing, understanding and managing headaches have been helped a lot with the use of psychology. The multifactorial model views headaches, migraine headaches in particular, as being triggered by multiple factors that include fluctuations in hormonal levels/balance, stress, barometric pressure changes, exposure to very bright lights, certain drug use, certain chemical ingestion, and certain foods, among others (Nevid & Rathus, p. 132). Said factors, of course, involve biological and environmental factors, but also psychological ones which are more the concern of health psychology—how psychological factors interact with physical health problems, including in terms of triggering, preventing, or treating diseases (Nevid & Rathus, p. 18). Health psychology studies have shown that stress figures in migraine headaches. The causal mechanisms that underlie migraines have been described to be complex and not well understood—with neurotransmitter serotonin imbalance and resulting blood flow changes in the brain appearing to be related somehow. The psychological perspective ha s identified stress and glaring lights exposure, among others, as possible triggers for migraine headaches. As well, this branch of psychology has indicated that behavioral coping responses may help people deal with headaches. While evidence collated in a study showing that women suffering from regular migraines tend to be more self-critical, likely to make a big thing of life's stresses, and less likely to look for social support during periods of stress, is only correlation, the study does suggest that people's behavior may inadvertently be leading them into a vicious cycle. Psychology shows that with recurrent headaches such as migraine, certain behaviors help trigger the illness as much as how the refusal to avail of social support may further aggravate emotional distress and pain from migraines (Nevid & Rathus, p. 32). With advances in health science in general, headaches today are better managed, with its triggers even being avoided. Psychology has helpe understand and cope with migraines also by way of advising people, women in particular, not to accept such an illness as â€Å"normal† and, instead, advise them to be more assertive with their doctors who limit migraine treatments to only one approach (Nevid & Rathus, p. 133). The importance of health psychology is, perhaps, more apparent in the case of coronary heart disease or CHD. This is because this leading cause of mortality in the US clearly lists several types of psychological factors as triggers: diet patterns; anger and hostility; Type A behavior that markedly consists of hostility; job strain; chronic emotional strain and fatigue; sudden stressors; and an inactive lifestyle (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135-137). Health psychology science has established how consumption patterns such as overeating, heavy alcohol drinking, smoking, and high-cholesterol diet lead to coronary heart ailments. It is also worth noting that the science has also identified that a minimal amount of alcohol appears to be beneficial to the heart. The psychological perspective also makes the suggestion that a modest association between coronary heart disease and Type A behavior exists, particularly among white, middle-aged-to-older men. Hostility and anger are closely linked with increased CHD risk and are even thought of to be a stronger predictor of CHD compared to genetics, obesity, or smoking (Nevid & Rathus, p. 35). With regards work-related psychological factor, the job-strain health psychology model helps understand how highly demanding jobs and jobs that gives workers little control lead to increased risk of heart-related illnesses (Nevid & Rathus, p. 136). The multifactorial health psychology perspective has also led to the understanding of how sudden life stressors, chronic fatigue/emotional strain and a physically inactive lifestyle figure in the development of heart disease and occurr ence of heart attacks. The multifactorial model in health psychology is a leading paradigm that recognizes the multi-faceted nature of illnesses. It is not a clear-cut, simple case that a disease is caused by a singular factor. The fact is that decades if not over a century of modern research has led to the recognition that a host of factors, as well as their interactions, function in illness and health determination (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). These varied factors that the multifactorial model indicates to be the range of possible influences or causes of diseases cover the psychological, ociocultural, environmental, and stressors. This broad range of factors, which include both those within and without one's control, determine an individual's health and his/her level of susceptibility to health problems (Nevid & Rathus, p. 127). Psychological or personality and behavior factors figure in quite a large number of health problems. Such is seen in the large number of preventable deaths that occur yearly in the United States. For one, smoking leads to way over 400,000 annual deaths from cancer, diseases of the heart and lungs, and stroke. Some 300,000 year deaths stroke, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes can actually be prevented with good diet and proper exercise. Immunizations, moderation or control of alcohol drinking, and abstinence or safe sex practices could also help prevent deaths from infectious diseases, vehicular and other accidents/injuries, and sexually transmitted diseases, respectively (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). It should be well noted that depression and other negative psychological states could actually render an impaired immune system functioning (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). The reason for this is that, contrary to popular thinking, the mental and the physical are not entirely separate domains but, rather intertwined (Nevid & Rathus, p. 131). Biological factors include age, gender, genetics, as well as injuries, exposure to pathogens and inoculations. One's genetic make-up, while beyond an individual's capacity to be altered, tend to make certain people falsely assume that their health is doomed by, say, a family history of diabetes. Having a family history of a disease can make some people think fatalistically that nothing they do can improve their chances of overcoming or escaping a disease. Dr. Robert N. Hoover of the National Cancer Institute, however, says that many cases of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and others merely give rise to predispositions, not really certainties (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). Environmental factors include pollution, water quality, hygiene from solid waster treatment and sanitation, natural disasters, and even global warming and depletion of the ozone layer. Personal stressors cover a wide range of situations such as daily hassles at home, co-workers, time pressure, and financial insecurity; frustrations; major life changes; workplace situation; and isolation or rejection by peers (Nevid & Rathus, p. 27). Thus, in the diagnosis of illnesses, the multifactorial model considers the possible roles played by psychological, biological, environmental/cultural factors, along with their interactions (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). In the United States, the application of the psychological health model can be seen in studies that attempt to explain the phenomenon of black Americans seemingly suffering from health problems more compared to the European Americans. The ethnicity consideration has led to studies showing that African-Americans may indeed be genetically predisposed to hypertension but, at the same time, poor diet, stress and smoking contribute to the development of the disease. Such consideration has also led to findings that the tendency of Afro-Americans to have lower access level to quality health care help explain, for instance, why they are less prone to receive surgeries for hip and knee replacements (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). Use of Psychology in Understanding Illnesses Diagnosing, understanding and managing headaches have been helped a lot with the use of psychology. The multifactorial model views headaches, migraine headaches in particular, as being triggered by multiple factors that include fluctuations in hormonal levels/balance, stress, barometric pressure changes, exposure to very bright lights, certain drug use, certain chemical ingestion, and certain foods, among others (Nevid & Rathus, p. 132). Said factors, of course, involve biological and environmental factors, but also psychological ones which are more the concern of health psychology—how psychological factors interact with physical health problems, including in terms of triggering, preventing, or treating diseases (Nevid & Rathus, p. 18). Health psychology studies have shown that stress figures in migraine headaches. The causal mechanisms that underlie migraines have been described to be complex and not well understood—with neurotransmitter serotonin imbalance and resulting blood flow changes in the brain appearing to be related somehow. The psychological perspective ha s identified stress and glaring lights exposure, among others, as possible triggers for migraine headaches. As well, this branch of psychology has indicated that behavioral coping responses may help people deal with headaches. While evidence collated in a study showing that women suffering from regular migraines tend to be more self-critical, likely to make a big thing of life's stresses, and less likely to look for social support during periods of stress, is only correlation, the study does suggest that people's behavior may inadvertently be leading them into a vicious cycle. Psychology shows that with recurrent headaches such as migraine, certain behaviors help trigger the illness as much as how the refusal to avail of social support may further aggravate emotional distress and pain from migraines (Nevid & Rathus, p. 32). With advances in health science in general, headaches today are better managed, with its triggers even being avoided. Psychology has helpe understand and cope with migraines also by way of advising people, women in particular, not to accept such an illness as â€Å"normal† and, instead, advise them to be more assertive with their doctors who limit migraine treatments to only one approach (Nevid & Rathus, p. 133). The importance of health psychology is, perhaps, more apparent in the case of coronary heart disease or CHD. This is because this leading cause of mortality in the US clearly lists several types of psychological factors as triggers: diet patterns; anger and hostility; Type A behavior that markedly consists of hostility; job strain; chronic emotional strain and fatigue; sudden stressors; and an inactive lifestyle (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135-137). Health psychology science has established how consumption patterns such as overeating, heavy alcohol drinking, smoking, and high-cholesterol diet lead to coronary heart ailments. It is also worth noting that the science has also identified that a minimal amount of alcohol appears to be beneficial to the heart. The psychological perspective also makes the suggestion that a modest association between coronary heart disease and Type A behavior exists, particularly among white, middle-aged-to-older men. Hostility and anger are closely linked with increased CHD risk and are even thought of to be a stronger predictor of CHD compared to genetics, obesity, or smoking (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135). With regards work-related psychological factor, the job-strain health psychology model helps understand how highly demanding jobs and jobs that gives workers little control lead to increased risk of heart-related illnesses (Nevid & Rathus, p. 136). The multifactorial health psychology perspective has also led to the understanding of how sudden life stressors, chronic fatigue/emotional strain and a physically inactive lifestyle figure in the development of heart disease and occurrence of heart attacks. Reference Nevid, J. S. and Rathus, S. A. (2000). Psychology and the challenges of life. John Wiley & Sons.

Desperate Housewives and Its Portrayal

My interviewee, Karen, grew up in the Philippines and has recently just migrated to the United States. She is a 24-year old ESL teacher who admits to pondering over the meaning of life yearly when her birthday is nearing. She was then enthusiastic to sit down with me to answer my questions about the meaning of life. For Karen, life does have an ultimate purpose or significance. She cites as proof of this belief the fact that bookstores and libraries currently carry a lot of books that help people find the meaning to their lives. â€Å"There has got to be a purpose to our lives. Will authors of self-help and ‘find a purpose in life' books be raking in a lot of money if people do not think that their life amounts to something? And that's another thing, actually. People are always in search for a purpose in their lives. This clamor for life to actually mean something is, I think, the ultimate proof that people come packaged with significance in life,† Karen says Being Catholic, Karen admits to always thinking that her life is meant to have purpose. She explains, â€Å"I have always attended Catholic schools where â€Å"religion†, specifically Catholic faith, is a constant in our list of subjects. Since pre-school days, my teachers would always emphasize the fact that I am meant to serve God. They always tell me, my classmates, that we should live our lives according to God’s will.† Asked what God’s will is, she answers, â€Å"Exactly what it is, my teachers haven’t actually defined. They did tell me, though, that I need to always be good. I need to be kind to my fellow men. That everything I do should be in accordance to God’s law, which is of course comprised of what the Bible says, what the commandment says, etc. Basically, life’s purpose is to be good and do good so that I will be welcomed in heaven. And in way, I still believe that is the purpose in life. I cannot accept that I’ve been put here on Earth for nothing. Something better must be waiting for me at the end of the line.† Karen confesses that even though she’s been reared in the Catholic upbringing, there was a time when she felt like serving God was not really her purpose in life. She says that although she believed in the existence of a higher being, she defied the fact that all the laws and commandments she’s been following are all dictated by human beings like her. â€Å"Who can say that what the Catholic Church outlined is really the ultimate truth? And that what they’re teaching is not made to serve their own purpose? And that what they want is also what God wants? I got to think this way when I started taking Philosophy classes in the University. My teachers imparted in me the habit of not taking everything in stride, of questioning everything that is being handed out to me. I also had a class, advertising I think, where the teacher had a great influence on me. He taught us about self-actualization. He always insisted on us trying to make something for ourselves just because we want to be something and not because somebody told us to do. That was the point when I got to question what the Church told me: that everything I do is for His glory,† she quips. But a few years after her University life, Karen admits that she started to soul-search and she realized that ever since she put God out of her life, her life started to feel meaningless. She explains, â€Å"There was this hollow part of me that neither friends nor a high-paying and glamorous job just cannot fulfill. I started to have this feeling that everything I’m doing is for no special reason. When I started to pray and go to Church again, I suddenly felt whole. That’s when I realized what was missing.† Karen’s opinion regarding the meaning of life was highly-influenced by her faith. Though she came to a point when she asked about the things she has always believed in, she still made a turnaround and accepted what her faith has outlined for her.